Power Crisis In Pakistan
Introduction
Reasons
Rise in Demand
Zero Addition to the power generation capacity
Cut in the electricity production by IPPs
Rising prices of fossil fuels
Reduced Capacity of Hydro power plants
Lack of vision and planning
Waste of Energy
Energy theft and line losses
Absence of other sources of energy
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Fffects
· Trouble for the Masses
· Closure of Industry
· Reduced Productivity
· Slow Down Of Economy
· Agriculture
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Solution
· Use of Alternative Resources for Electricity Generation
Coal
Geothermal Energy
Wind Energy
Atomic Energy
Hydropower Projects
· Encouragement of Energy Saving Attitude
· Foreign Investment In Power Sector
· Co-operation with China And Iran
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Pakistan's Electric Power Crisis Worsens
In June 2007, the power cuts in Pakistan lasted no more than 3 or 4 hours a day. Today, in extremely hot weather, Pakistanis have to endure without electricity for 8 to 10 hours a day. Industrial production is suffering, exports are down, jobs are being lost, and the national economy is in a downward spiral. By all indications, the power crisis in Pakistan is getting worse than ever. Extended Load-shedding:Extended electricity load shedding in Karachi's five major industrial estates is causing losses in billions of rupees as the production activity has fallen by about 50 per cent. KESC, Karachi's power supply utility, is dealing with with a shortfall of around 700MW against a total demand of 2200MW. Almost all forms of power generation from fossil fuel-fired thermal to hydroelectric to nuclear are down from a year ago. As a result of the daily rolling blackouts, the economy, major exports and overall employment are also down and the daily wage earners are suffering. The KESC and PEPCO owe more than Rs. 10b to the independent power producers (IPPs) and paying them will help bring them into full operation and ease the crisis at least partially.Electricity Demand:As discussed in an earlier post, Pakistan's current installed capacity is around 19,845 MW, of which around 20% is hydroelectric. Much of the rest is thermal, fueled primarily by gas and oil. Pakistan Electric Power Company PEPCO blames independent power producers (IPPs) for the electricity crisis, as they have been able to give PEPCO only 3,800 MW on average out of 5,800 MW of confirmed capacity. Most of the IPPs are running fuel stocks below the required minimum of 21 days. IPPs complain that they are not being paid on time by PEPCO.Per capita energy consumption of the country is estimated at 14 million Btu, which is about the same as India's but only a fraction of other industrializing economies in the region such as Thailand and Malaysia, according to the US Dept of Energy 2006 report. To put it in perspective, the world average per capita energy use is about 65 million BTUs and the average American consumes 352 million BTUs. With 40% of the Pakistani households that have yet to receive electricity, and only 18% of the households that have access to pipeline gas, the energy sector is expected to play a critical role in economic and social development. With this growth comes higher energy consumption and stronger pressures on the country’s energy resources. At present, natural gas and oil supply the bulk (80 percent) of Pakistan’s energy needs. However, the consumption of those energy sources vastly exceeds the supply. For instance, Pakistan currently produces only 18.3 percent of the oil it consumes, fostering a dependency on expensive, imported oil and that places considerable strain on the country’s financial position, creating growing budget deficits. On the other hand, hydro, coal, wind and solar are perhaps underutilized and underdeveloped today, as Pakistan has ample potential to exploit these resources. Gilani Government's Response:Neelum-Jhelum hydroelectric project, first formally announced by former Minister Omar Ayub on June 10, 2007, is finally starting in earnest under the PPP government of Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani. This hydro project is expected to add 963MW power generating capacity at a cost US $2.2 billion, according to Business Wire. Prior to this project, the new Pakistani Prime Minister signed a deal with a Chinese company, Dong Fong, for setting up 525 MW thermal power plant with an investment of $450 million at Chichoki Mallian (Sheikhupura). Both of these projects are expected help partially close the 3000 MW gap that exists today between supply and demand in Pakistan.Renewable Energy Opportunities:In response to the warnings of energy crisis in Pakistan, President Musharraf's government recognized the need and the potential for renewable alternatives and, in 2006, created Alternative Energy Development Board to pursue renewable energy. In particular, AEDB is focusing on wind and solar as viable alternatives. AEDB is facilitating setting up of small renewable energy projects in line with government’s policy of promoting the use of renewable energy in the country’s power generation mix, says the board’s chief executive officer Mr Arif Alauddin. AEDB has recently issued Makwind Power Private Ltd (MPPL) a Letter of Intent for the setting up of 50MW wind farm at Nooriabad in Sindh, as part of its efforts to facilitate 700 MW wind energy by 2010.According to data published by Miriam Katz of Environmental Peace Review, Pakistan is fortunate to have something many other countries do not, which are high wind speeds near major centers. Near Islamabad, the wind speed is anywhere from 6.2 to 7.4 meters per second (between 13.8 and 16.5 miles per hour). Near Karachi, the range is between 6.2 and 6.9 (between 13.8 and 15.4 miles per hour). Pakistan is also fortunate that in neighboring India, the company Suzlon manufactures wind turbines, thus decreasing transportation costs. Working with Suzlon, Pakistan can begin to build its own wind-turbine industry and create thousands of new jobs while solving its energy problems. Suzlon turbines start to turn at a speed of 3 meters per second. Vestas, which is one of the world's largest wind turbine manufacturers, has wind turbines that start turning at a speed of 4 meters per second. In addition to Karachi and Islamabad, there are other areas in Pakistan that receive a significant amount of wind.In only the Balochistan and Sindh provinces, sufficient wind exists to power every coastal village in the country. There also exists a corridor between Gharo and Keti Bandar that alone could produce between 40,000 and 50,000 megawatts of electricity, says Ms. Katz who has studied and written about alternative energy potential in South Asia. Given this surplus potential, Pakistan has much to offer Asia with regards to wind energy. In recent years, the government has completed several projects to demonstrate that wind energy is viable in the country. In Mirpur Sakro, 85 micro turbines have been installed to power 356 homes. In Kund Malir, 40 turbines have been installed, which power 111 homes. The Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) has also acquired 18,000 acres for the installation of more wind turbines.In addition to high wind speeds near major centers as well as the Gharo and Keti Bandar corridor, Pakistan is also very fortunate to have many rivers and lakes. Wind turbines that are situated in or near water enjoy an uninterrupted flow of wind, which virtually guarantees that power will be available all the time. Within towns and cities, wind speeds can often change quickly due to the presence of buildings and other structures, which can damage wind turbines. In addition, many people do not wish for turbines to be sited near cities because of noise, though these problems are often exaggerated. Wind turbines make less noise than an office and people comfortably carry on conversations while standing near them.As is painfully evident in summers, Pakistan is an exceptionally sunny country. If 0.25% of Balochistan was covered with solar panels with an efficiency of 20%, enough electricity would be generated to cover all of Pakistani demand. In all provinces the AEDB has created 100 solar homes in order to exploit solar energy.Solar energy makes much sense for Pakistan for several reasons: firstly, 70% of the population lives in 50,000 villages that are very far away from the national grid, according to a report by the Solar Energy Research Center (SERC). Connecting these villages to the national grid would be very costly, thus giving each house a solar panel would be cost efficient and would empower people both economically and socially.Coal Power and HydroelectricityIn addition to high winds and abundant solar potential, Pakistan has the fifth largest coal deposits in the world. The negative environmental effects of coal burning can be be mitigated by making use of the latest clean coal technologies that limit noxious gas exhaust into the atmosphere. Pakistan also has some deposits of natural gas in the Potwar Plateau region and near the border between Balochistan and Sindh, but these are likely to disappear within 20 years.Because of the presence of many rivers and lakes, it makes sense for Pakistan to build dams to support water management and electricity generation projects. However, it must be done with care to avoid damage to the environment or loss of farmland. Financial and Policy IncentivesDespite the fact that Pakistan is so well endowed with wind and solar potential, only a few projects such as those mentioned above have been completed. One of the reasons why this has occurred is that Pakistan does not have major financial incentives available for those who want to install wind turbines or solar panels. Let us look at the case of India, Pakistan's neighbor. Despite having less potential for wind, India now has the world's fourth largest number of wind turbines installed at 7,093 MW, according to India: Renewable Energy Market report. Ahead of India are Germany at 21,283 MW, Spain at 13,400 MW and the US at 12,934 MW. In Germany, Spain and India, those who install wind turbines and solar panels are guaranteed a certain rate per kilowatt hour. In India, this varies according to the technology and the area. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India reports that in most areas, between 2500 and 4800 rupees are guaranteed for solar panels, and for wind turbines, between 250,000 and 300,000 rupees are awarded.Because of the above incentives, the cost of wind in India is between 2 and 2.5 cents per kilowatt hour while in Pakistan, the cost is 7 cents. In December 2006, President Musharraf announced a national renewable energy policy. This policy means that small projects do not need approval and that any person can put up their own project. However, there are no financial incentives for doing so. At the moment, all renewable energy equipment has no sales or income tax and is free of custom duty, but these incentives are not enough to stimulate major growth in the renewable energy market where ROIs and other financial ratios have a long gestation or breakeven period. In certain situations, such as the textiles and other Karachi industrial units losing production and export opportunities due to power cuts, it may make sense for the owners to join hands and build power generation capacity they can rely on. ConclusionIn addition to coal and hydro electricity generation, Miriam Katz argues that it is clear that Pakistan is a suitable country for the installation of wind and solar: due to high winds near cities; the presence of rivers and lakes as well as the availability of wind turbines from nearby India. There are also other reasons for installing renewable energy. It is quite normal for extended power outages to happen on a daily basis in the country, but this cannot continue if the Pakistani economy is to grow. In March 2007, President Musharraf stated that renewable energy should be part of the push to increase energy supplies by 10 to 12 percent every year. The government also set a target of 10 percent of energy to come from renewables by 2015. If the new PPP-led government follows through with aggressive renewable energy push, Pakistan could be an Asian leader in renewable energy given its natural resources of wind and solar as its strategic endowments.
Power crisis to deepen in coming years: 50pc demand rise in two years likelyISLAMABAD, Jan 7: The government is anticipating the energy crisis to worsen in the next two years due to a 50 per cent increase in the demand and a rather slow improvement in the supply, it is learnt.The power shortage that has been estimated to remain in the range of 1000-2000MW during the current year is likely to cross 3,000MW next year and to increase to about 5,300MW by 2010. Overall, Pakistan’s total energy requirement is expected to be around 80 million tons of oil equivalents (MTOE) in 2010, up by about 50 per cent from the current year’s 54 MTOE.“Since four out of five major initiatives, originally planned for meeting this demand, are uncertain at present, the shortage could be anybody’s guess,” said a senior government official.The federal government has decided to convene two back-to-back meetings on Tuesday to take stock of the situation. Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz will preside over a meeting of all stakeholders, including officials from the Planning Commission, ministries of water and power, petroleum and finance and power and gas utilities, and oil and gas producers and suppliers to examine repercussions and possible solutions.Ahead of that meeting, Minister for Water and Power Liaquat Ali Jatoi will chair a meeting of oil and gas utilities to see how soon these shortages could be minimised and power plants on maintenance be brought on line.An official, who is part of the team preparing for the prime minister’s meeting told Dawn that the energy shortage was severe and widespread in almost all areas, while different sectors contributed to each other’s problems. “Natural gas, power, and oil shortages were all posing risks to the economic growth in medium to long term period,” he said.Adviser on Water and Power Riaz A. Khan said the situation was complex. He said the development of water resources would resolve the problem in the long run but in the short term there was a limit to constructing costly thermal power projects given their high economic costs.He said the independent power projects currently under construction would not begin productions before 2009. The Orient Power Project, the Halmore, the Saif, the Sapphire and Water and Power Development Authority’s (Wadpa) new plants would be commercially operational in March 2009, he said.A major shortfall is expected in natural gas supplies, another official said. According to an official energy demand forecast, the demand for natural gas, having about 50 per cent share in the country’s energy consumption, would increase by 44 per cent to 39MTOE from 27MTOE currently.The government has planned to add an overall power generation capacity of about 7,880MW by 2010. Of this, about 4,860MW is to be based on natural gas, accounting for 61 per cent of the capacity expansion. However, the gas-based power expansion of about 4,860MW would remain in doubt since these estimates are based on three gas import options for completion in 2010, 2015 and 2020.This means that the major part of about 4,860 gas-based plants would not be available and the difference would be met through other costly options. "Even if the physical work is started today, it will take at least seven years to complete a pipeline project", said a senior petroleum ministry official. He has no answer as to when a pipeline project could be taken in hand from now on. The fifth initiative of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) import is expected to remain on schedule and start delivering about 0.3 billion cubic feet of gas (BCFD) by 2009 and another 0.5 BCFD by 2015.Partly contributed by gas shortfalls, the power shortage is expected to be little over 5,250MW by 2010, said a Planning Commission official, adding that the oil demand would also increase by over 23 per cent to about 21 million tons in 2010 from the current 16.8 million tons. This would leave a total deficit of about nine million tons of diesel and furnace oil imports, he said. Since gas shortfalls were expected to be much higher, the country would need to enhance its dependence on imported oil, increasing pressure on foreign exchange situation, he added.The government had planned five major initiatives to meet these energy requirements under the Energy Security Plan. These include three gas import pipelines, the Gwadar port as energy hub and the LNG import. However, four of these measures, including the three import pipeline projects, show no signs of progress for various reasons, while concentration on energy facilities in Gwadar would chiefly depend on security situation, besides oil and gas import pipelines.Pakistan's gas reserves are 32.8 TCF at present with reserve-production ration in the order of 27 years - domestic production is not expected to grow substantially. The power sector demand represents 41 per cent of total gas consumption; general industries 24 per cent; fertiliser 7.8 per cent; domestic/commercial 22.8 per cent; and cement and the Condensed Natural Gas (CNG) 1.5 per cent and 2.8 per cent, respectively.The demand growth has been up to 8.5 per cent in recent years and is expected to grow by about seven per cent with power industries and domestic accounting for 82 per cent. Gas demand already displays seasonal patterns with the national demand growing in winter beyond transmission capacity and large users mainly industries, power plants and cement are curtailed during winter months to ensure supplies to domestic, commercial and small industries or fertiliser. The annual production at present is about 1.16 TCF."The present government could not initiate any major project in the last seven years to meet future energy demand", said former secretary petroleum Dr Gulfraz Ahmad. The projects that were launched in the 1990s met the demand growth in the last few years, he said.Former petroleum minister Usman Aminuddin said that Pakistan was currently in the midst of a severe energy crisis and development and gasification of Thar coal seemed the only hope in future.According to the World Bank estimates, a gap (supply shortage) of about four per cent of the total demand was expected in 2010. Even though this would be met by the LNG imports, it would again increase to 20 per cent of the total demand. The Bank said that the indigenous gas supply would fall from 32.6 MTOE in 2010 to 20.7 MTOE in 2025, while the ‘gas supply-demand gap’ would rapidly increase as demand was expected to grow continuously, quadrupling in 2025. It said that the gas imports will represent almost 67 per cent of natural gas supply in 2025. One can, therefore, gauge the quantum of shortage in case import pipelines are not materialised.
Islamabad - Pakistan's electricity production was nearly 3,000 megawatts short of demand in March. The country made up the difference by turning off lights, and everything else, for several hours a day.
Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gillani after being sworn in March 25 put the 'energy crisis' up with terrorism as a top issue to address during his first 100 days in office. Sponsored Links:
But things will get worse before they get better, Gillani warned, with power outages increasing through June when air conditioners are turned on to beat the heat.
Pakistan is experiencing these shortages despite its miserly electricity use with per-capita consumption of 546 kilowatt hours per year, a fifth of the global average of 2,586 kilowatt hours, according to statistics from the seven-nation South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation.
The problem stems from the fact that Pakistan has failed to build new power plants to keep up with the demand for electricity.
As a result, the poor who are connected to the grid are going without during the nearly four hours of outages that are occurring per day this month. In wealthier neighbourhoods, however, the streets come alive with the sounds of generators.
The power outages have increased generator sales - and their price tags - but have also cooled sales of fans, air conditioners and other appliances with consumers asking why have such devices without the electricity to run them.
A graver concern for the economy is the outages' effects on the industrial sector, which is Pakistan's biggest consumer of electricity, and factories having to shut down during the outages. Police have also reported increased crime during the blackouts in bigger cities. Sponsored Links:
The blackouts have shed light on many problems, but just as many solutions are on offer.
Of Pakistan's 19,500 megawatts of production capacity, a little more than 60 per cent is from imported oil and domestic natural gas power plants. Hydropower generated from the country's two major dams accounts for about 30 per cent, and its one nuclear power plant produces less than 5 per cent.
Coal plant production is even less, but that could change if Pakistan exploits what has been estimated as the world's third-largest known coal reserves in the south-eastern part of the country.
'The answer lies in using local coal,' Tahir Basharat Cheema with DG Energy Management said in a recent televised debate about the energy crisis.
Cheema suggested the government's Water and Power Development Authority develop coal generation, adding Pakistan cannot 'solely depend on the private sector, [which] wants everything developed' for them.
More nuclear plants and dams are other options often put forward while others tout solar and wind power.
Ejaz Ahmad, deputy director of the Pakistani branch of the World Wide Fund For Nature, or WWF, said a big part of the answer is blowing in the wind. 'It is practical for cost reasons as well as environmental,' he told Deutsche Presse-Agentur dpa.
With power needed immediately, wind farms look good because they are relatively fast to install whereas dams and nuclear power plants take five to six years to complete and thermal power plants a couple of years at least, he said. Sponsored Links:
The WWF erected three 500-watt windmills in a rural area of the south-western province of Sindh. Each windmill cost about 1,000 dollars, including installation, and provides electricity to homes that never had it before.
'It's a small project to show wind works,' Amad said.
Real small - the country would need at least 6 million more of those windmills to meet the electricity shortfalls it is experiencing in early April.
The windmills are in the region of Pakistan's coal reserves, which Amad warned would be a political as well as environmental disaster if they are mined.
'The winds blow to India, so the pollution would blow into India, and that would cause political problems,' he said. Harvest that wind instead, he suggested.
Professor Irfan Younas with the Institute of Information Technology in Rawalpindi agreed wind should play a big part of solving Pakistan's energy shortages, adding that comprehensive wind maps have already been researched in the country.
'Karachi's energy problem could be answered with wind energy,' he said of Pakistan's biggest city of about 15 million people on the southern coast, where there are consistent breezes all year.
Cost-effectiveness attracted Younas to both wind and solar energy, he said, but added that in the long-term, Pakistan should also build more nuclear plants and dams.
'There is money to be made, no doubt about it,' he said. 'We need people to come and invest in independent power producers here.'
'We are at the point that people really need to act,' he said.
How to survive the energy crisis in Pakistan
THE loadshedding-driven sleepless nights and disrupted daily routines of last summer are still haunting the people as the weather turns hot. The situation has not improved since last year; indeed all the signs are that it is getting worse.Credit goes to brave Pakistanis for surviving through the winter despite 10-hour power and gas loadshedding. But in the upcoming summer when the mercury is going to consistently hover round 40°C, occasionally rising to 50°C in some places, a power crisis of a similar order is going to prove unbearable. Last summer the national media reported tragic deaths due to heatstroke and dehydration. The energy crisis in winter forced thousands of industries to shut down operations, affecting industrial production and the livelihoods of thousands of families.
Considering the indispensability of energy — since 1947, per capita electricity dependence in Pakistan has grown 82-fold — the current state of affairs can be regarded as a ‘national crisis’. The quickest and pragmatic solution — multi-gigawatt capacity addition based on local coal and hydropower — will require at least 2-3 years (5-7 years for hydropower) provided that bold and concerted steps are taken on a war footing.
Assuming optimistically that this will happen, we still have to devise ways in the interim to meet the electricity deficit in the country which has soared to over 40 per cent. The challenge now is how to survive this summer and how to stop the crisis from getting worse. The solution lies in a collective national effort.
Two key elements of a possible solution are: categorical change in the pattern of energy consumption and change in lifestyles.
The current energy consumption trends in Pakistan are extremely inefficient, whether it be in the domestic, industrial, trade or commercial sectors. With minimal effort, well over ten per cent of national electricity can be saved by applying only the first level of energy conservation, that is a change in attitude. It is simple, instant and effective and all it requires is a stop to using energy unnecessarily.
Leaving lights and home appliances on even when they are not being used is a common practice in our society. Similarly, many businesses such as shops dealing in cloth and garments, jewellery, cosmetics, home appliances and electronics are usually extravagantly lit. It is commonly observed that shops that could do with two or three 40-watt tube lights to meet the desired level of luminance use as many as 15 to 20 tubes. Not only does this increase power consumption, it also generates heat and makes the environment uncomfortable.
A further economy of 10-15 per cent can be achieved by introducing the second level of energy-conservation practices, especially in industry. Collectively, just through conservation, more than half of the electricity deficit can be met. However to do that, public education is essential. With the help of effective electronic and print media campaigns the government can quickly educate the masses.
The second part of the solution is a change in lifestyles. It would begin with the acknowledgement that the country is facing a national disaster and every citizen has to pitch in to overcome it. The nation has to draw a clear line between necessities (lighting, fans, TVs, computers, etc) and luxuries (air conditioners, microwaves, etc). There is not enough electricity to meet both requirements.
We will have to compromise on luxurious lifestyles in order to meet the necessities. Markets and commercial places can substantially reduce their power consumption by changing their working hours. An early start and early end to capitalise on daylight as much as possible should be recommended rather than having opening hours from afternoon until late at night.Air-conditioning, usually a sign of a luxurious lifestyle, needs to be dropped. Bearing in mind that a typical domestic AC consumes far more electricity in one hour than a fan does over 24 hours, air conditioning should not be allowed except for sensitive applications such as hospitals and research centres. The choice is between using ACs for a few hours and then doing without electricity in peak summer months or avoiding ACs and other luxury gadgets but having round-the-clock electricity available to meet fundamental needs.
Any such policy should be made at the highest level and its implementation should also begin there because charity starts at home. The common man would only be convinced of the looming crisis when he sees the ruling elite practise what it preaches.
The ruling class should lead by example in matters of power conservation. If it does so the common man will follow suit. It is time for the elite to take energy-saving initiatives like abandoning the use of central air conditioning, travelling by special flights and irrelevant use of official transport.
These recommendations are neither impractical nor a step backward, as some sections may perceive them to be. If implemented they can not only avoid the collapse of a bankrupt energy infrastructure but also ensure progress. Even those who have access to easy money and can afford different gadgets such as generators to offset reduced power supply will still feel the heat one way or the other. The bottom line is, in order to safely get through the current energy crisis the nation has to differentiate between its necessities and its luxuries.
If loadshedding is still unavoidable despite all these measures, Wapda/KESC should organise the cuts in a sensible way to cause minimum discomfort. Loadshedding
Energy Crisis and Pakistan
An energy crisis is any great shortfall (or price rise) in the supply of energy resources to an economy. It usually refers to the shortage of oil and additionally to electricity or other natural resources.The crisis often has effects on the rest of the economy, with many recessions being caused by an energy crisis in some form. In particular, the production costs of electricity rise, which raises manufacturing costs.For the consumer, the price of gasoline (petrol) and diesel for cars and other vehicles rises, leading to reduced consumer confidence and spending, higher transportation costs and general price rising.Future and alternative sources of energySome experts argue that the world is heading towards a global energy crisis due to a decline in the availability of cheap oil and recommend a decreasing dependency on fossil fuel. This has led to increasing interest in alternate power/fuel research such as fuel cell technology, hydrogen fuel, biomethanol, biodiesel, Karrick process, solar energy, tidal energy and wind energy. To date, only hydroelectricity and nuclear power have been significant alternatives to fossil fuel (see Future energy development), with big ecological problems (residues and water spending). Hydrogen gas is currently produced at a net energy loss from natural gas, which is also experiencing declining production in North America and elsewhere. When not produced from natural gas, hydrogen still needs another source of energy to create it, also at a loss during the process. This has led to hydrogen being regarded as a 'carrier' of energy rather than a 'source'.There have been alarming predictions by groups such as the Club of Rome that the world would run out of oil in the late 20th century. Although technology has made oil extraction more efficient, the world is having to struggle to provide oil by using increasingly costly and less productive methods such as deep sea drilling, and developing environmentally sensitive areas such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The world's population continues to grow at a quarter of a million people per day, increasing the consumption of energy. The per capita energy consumption of China, India and other developing nations continues to increase as the people living in these countries adopt western lifestyles. At present a small part of the world's population consumes a large part of its resources, with the United States and its population of 296 million people consuming more oil than China with its population of 1.3 billion people.Efficiency mechanisms such as Negawatt power can provide significantly increased supply. It is a term used to describe the trading of increased efficiency, using consumption efficiency to increase available market supply rather than by increasing plant generation capacity.Energy Crisis In PakistanEnergy resources have depleted! Whatever resources are available are simply too expensive to buy or already acquired by countries which had planned and acted long time ago. Delayed efforts in the exploration sector have not been able to find sufficient amounts of energy resources. Nations of the world which have their own reserves are not supplying energy resources anymore; only the old contracts made decades ago are active. Airplanes, trains, cars, motorbikes, buses and trucks, all modes of transportation are coming to a stand still. Many industries have closed due to insufficient power supply. Price of oil has gone above the ceiling. At domestic level, alternate methods like solar, biogas and other methods are being tried for mere survival. The above is a likely scenario of Pakistan and around the globe after 25 years. A pessimistic view, but realistic enough to think about and plan for the future. But are we doing anything about it? Lets have a look at the current energy situation of Pakistan and the world. Pakistan’s economy is performing at a very high note with GDP growing at an exceptional rate, touching 8.35% in 2004-05.In its history of 58 years, there has been only a few golden years where the economy grew above 7%. This year official expectations are that GDP growth rate will be around 6.5 – 7.0%. For the coming years, the government is targeting GDP growth rate above 6%. With economy growing at such a pace, the energy requirements are likely to increase with a similar rate. For 2004-05, Pakistan’s energy consumption touched 55.5 MTOE (Million Tons of Oil Equivalent). The energy consumption is expected to grow at double digit if the overall economy sustains the targeted GDP growth rate of 6% by the government. Pakistan’s energy requirements are expected to double in the next few years, and our energy requirements by 2015 is likely to cross 120MTOE. By 2030, the nation’s requirement will be 7 times the current requirement reaching 361MTOE. Pakistan’s energy requirements are fulfilled with more than 80% of energy resources through imports. On the other hand, international oil prices have not only broken all records but are touching new highs, with every news directly or indirectly affecting the black gold industry. Moreover, speculators all around the world expect oil prices to touch $100 per barrel in medium term. With concerns over Iran’s nuclear program, terrorist issues in Nigeria and high economic growth in China & India and their ever rising energy requirements, oil prices don’t see any another way but to shoot upwards. What is the government doing to ensure a sustainable supply of energy resources for economic growth? What strategic steps are being taken to acquire energy resources in future? Is private sector willing to invest in Pakistan’s oil industry? What are the incentives being offered to the foreign players to continue working in the exploration sector? What hurdles are stopping other big players around the world to enter Pakistan? What is the role of gas distribution companies so far? Are the citizens of Pakistan being robbed by energy giants with ever rising utility bills? What should be the real price of petroleum, kerosene and other oil products in Pakistan? When will the nation have “load shedding free” electric supply? Have we been able to make long term contracts with the countries to provide uninterrupted supply of energy resources? Will the government be able to provide enough sources to the citizens for a sustainable economic growth? Have we lost the race for acquiring maximum energy resources for future survival? Pakistan: Power crisis feared by 2007The country may plunge into energy crisis by the year 2007 due to rising electricity demand which enters into double digit figure following increasing sale of electrical and electronic appliances on lease finance, it is reliably learnt Thursday.“The country may face energy crisis by the year 2007 following healthy growth of 13 per cent in electricity demand during the last quarter, which will erode surplus production in absence of commissioning of any new power generation project during this financial year,” informed sources told The Nation.As per Pakistan Economic Survey 2003-04, electricity consumption has increased by 8.6 per cent during first three-quarter of last fiscal year. However, a top level WAPDA official maintained that electricity demand surged up to 13 per cent during last quarter.The survey said household sector has been the largest consumer of electricity accounting for 44.2 per cent of total electricity consumption followed by industries 31.1 per cent, agriculture 14.3 per cent, other government sector 7.4 per cent, commercial 5.5 per cent and street light 0.7 per cent.Keeping in view the past trend and the future development, WAPDA has also revised its load forecast to eight per cent per annum as against previous estimates of five per cent on average. Even the revised load forecast has also failed all assessments due to which Authority has left no other option but to start load management this year, which may convert into scheduled loadshedding over a period of two year, sources maintained.The country needs a quantum jump in electricity generation in medium-term scenario to revert the possibilities of loadshedding in future due to shrinking gap between demand and supply of electricity at peak hours.According to an official report, the gap between firm supply and peak hours demand has already been shrunk to three digit (440 MW) during this fiscal and will slip into negative columns next year (-441 MW) and further intensify to (-1,457 MW) during the financial year 2006-07.The report maintained that the difference between firm supply and peak demand is estimated at 5,529 MW by the year 2009-10 when firm electricity supply will stand at 15,055 MW against peak demand of 20,584 MW.Chairman WAPDA Tariq Hamid at a Press conference early this year warned about the possible energy crisis and stressed the need for ‘quantum jump’ in power generation. The experts say it could only be possible through a mega project of hydropower generation, otherwise the gap between firm supply and peak demand will remain on the rise.They said the power generation projects, which are due to commission in coming years are of low capacity and will not be able to exceed the surging demand of the electricity.They say no power generation project will commission during this fiscal year and the total installed capacity of electricity generation will remain 19,478 MW to meet 15,082 MW firm supply and 14,642 MW peak demand.Giving details of projects, the sources said Malakand-lll (81MW), Pehur (18MW) and combined cycle power plant at Faisalabad (450MW) are planned to be commissioned during the year 2007. Mangla Dam raising project would also add 150 MW capacity to the national grid by June 2007. Besides this, Khan Khwar (72MW), Allai Khwar (121MW), Duber Khwar (130MW) and Kayal Khwar (130MW) are expected to be completed in 2008 along with Golan Gol (106MW) and Jinnah (96MW). Moreover, Matiltan (84MW), New Bong Escape (79MW) and Rajdhani (132MW) are expected by 2009 while Taunsa (120MW) is likely to be completed by 2010.Sources say WAPDA has also planned to install a high efficiency combined cycle power plant at Baloki (450MW), which is expected to be completed by 2010. In addition of these, power plant 1 & 2 of 300 MW each at Thar Coal with the assistance of China are also planned for commissioning in 2009, sources said. Moreover, efforts are also under way with China National Nuclear Corporation for the construction of a third nuclear power plant with a gross capacity of 325 MW at Chashma, they added.When contacted, a WAPDA official said there is no power shortage in the country at present as the Authority still has over 1,000 MW surplus electricity. However, he admitted that the shortage may occur in the year 2007 and onward and said the Authority will utilise all options including running of IPPs plant at full capacity to avert any possible crisis.About the system augmentation to bring down line losses, the official said the Authority would spend Rs 3.5 billion on augmentation of distribution lines this fiscal while another Rs 5 billion will be consumed on transmission lines. “We have been negotiating Rs 9 billion loan with a consortium of local banks to upgrade and augment the power transmission system,” he disclosed. The official further said that five new transmission lines of 220-KV would be installed by the end of 2004, that would ensure smooth supply to the consumers. He expressed full trust on present transmission and distribution system and said it could easily sustain the load of total installed power generation in the country
Power vision in Pakistan
WATER and power are no more synonymous. However, Wapda makes us believe that water and power are inseparable and that the present energy crisis in the country is because we have failed to build large dams. Wapda and the proponents of big dams use this argument in favour of building Kalabagh and other large dams.We need to look at the larger picture and think out of the box. Pakistan produces about 19,500 MW of electric power; Wapda provides about 11,363 MW, or 58 per cent of this. The remaining power is supplied by the KESC, nuclear and IPPs. There is currently loadshedding of up to 700 MW a day because of shortage and poor transmission capabilities. Electricity demand is expected to grow by eight per cent a year during the period 2005 — 2015, requiring an annual installation capacity of about 2000 MW for the next 10 years.The worldwide electricity production, as per the World Bank, is as follows: coal: 40 per cent; gas 19 per cent; nuclear 16 per cent; hydro 16 per cent; oil seven per cent. Pakistan’s power production is gas 48 per cent; hydro 33 per cent; oil 16 per cent; nuclear two per cent, and coal 0.2 per cent.There has been a global trend to shift away from oil because of its rising price expected to reach $100 a barrel by the end of this year depending on the international geopolitical situation. Despite the lowest cost of hydroelectric power, there have been environmental, ecological and geopolitical concerns over the building of large dams.The supply of natural gas in Pakistan has been depleting over the years, and the country is now looking at the option of importing gas from Qatar and Central Asia. This leaves the possibility of exploring nuclear, coal and other alternative energy sources.Nuclear energy and coal form the lowest source of power production in Pakistan. On the other hand, the world average for nuclear energy is 16 per cent and for coal 40 per cent.Let us first consider these two potential sources of electric power production for Pakistan. The US obtains 20 per cent of its electric power from nuclear energy with 104 reactors; France 78 per cent with 59 reactors, Japan 24 per cent with 54 reactors, the UK 23 per cent with 31 reactors, and so on. Even India has signed a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement with the United States to develop its nuclear capability for power generation and economic development. It has currently six reactors in operation with a capacity of 3750 MW, and another six with a capacity of 3,340 MW are under construction and should be completed by 2007.The new agreement will further boost the nuclear power generating capacity of India. Today, nuclear power plants have average capacities of 600 — 1,000 MW.Pakistan only produces two per cent of its power through two reactors (Karachi and Chashma at 137 MW and 300 MW respectively). Pakistan is a nuclear technologically advanced country with capabilities to produce fuel, yet falls behind most other countries, including India, in terms of nuclear power production.Regarding coal power generation, the US produces 51 per cent of its power using coal, Poland 96 per cent, South Africa 94 per cent, India 68 per cent, Australia 77 per cent, China 79 per cent, Israel 77 per cent, UK 35 per cent, Japan 28 per cent, while Pakistan produces only 0.2 per cent of its power through coal.Pakistan has the world’s seventh largest reserves of coal, after the recent discoveries in Thar. The total coal reserve in Pakistan is about 175 billion tons.The current coal production is only 3.5 million tons per year, which is mostly used for the brick and cement industry. Coal has typical problems, such as a high sulphur content (it produces sulphur dioxide, the source of acid rain), mineral matter content (leading to ash and pollution problems), carbon dioxide emission (contributing to global warming) and high moisture content.However, technologies are available to minimise all of these. Conversion technologies are currently under development to convert coal into environmentally-friendly methanol and hydrogen gas to be used as clean fuel. The US is working on a major initiative called future gen to produce “zero emission” power plants of the future.There is large-scale application of coal for power generation around the world. The largest coal-fired plant in the world today is at Nanticoke, Canada, with a capacity of 3900 MW. In the US, which is the largest consumer of coal-generated power the power plant at Coal Creek has a capacity of 1,100 MW. Coal-fired power plants of 500 MW are the norm today and many are currently under construction around the world. In Pakistan, there are plans to build only two 300 MW coal-fired plants at Thar.In addition to the option of using nuclear plants and coal for power production, alternative energy sources are also available, including wind and solar. Wind energy is the fastest growing energy source in the world. It grew at an astonishing 43 per cent in the last one year alone. Total installed capacity worldwide is 60,000 MW. Technologies have greatly improved in the last two decades, making wind energy very feasible as compared to other sources of power. In the 1980s, the cost of wind energy production was 40 c/kwh; today it is only four c/kwh (Rs 2.40 per unit as compared to Rs. 4.00 for fossil fuel) and therefore it is growing very rapidly. Ecological issues continue to be addressed for large wind farms.The world’s two largest growing economies — China and India — are capitalising on wind capability. By 2010, China will set up plants of over 5,000 MW of wind power. India last year alone set up 1,430 MW of wind power plants and is expected to add another 5,000 MW by 2012. The world’s largest producers of wind energy today are Germany at 18,440 MW (equal to Pakistan’s total power output), Spain 10,000 MW, the US 9,150 MW and India 4,430 MW (at number four). The Indian government is envisaging a capacity addition of 5,000 MW of wind power by 2012 by extending major financial incentives to the wind energy sector.Denmark is obtaining 15 per cent of its electric power needs from windmills and it is expected to grow to 50 per cent by 2012; Britain, France, Ireland and Canada are countries which are rapidly expanding their wind energy potential. Large-scale wind farms today include a 300 MW plant in Oregon-Washington, while an under-construction 520 MW capacity in Ireland will be the world’s largest. China has announced that it plans to build a 1000 MW wind farm in Hebi by 2012.Smaller windmills are also very feasible for remote villages, and in desert, mountainous and coastal regions, cutting down on the cost of power transmission and distribution networks. In remote farmlands, they have been successfully used for decades in the United States and Europe.In Pakistan, smaller windmills are now visible, such as the ones at Gharo, where SZABIST set up an experimental research station many years ago. The Sindh government has recently announced plans to build a 50 MW wind farm in the vicinity in the coastal region at Gharo.Solar power (photovoltaic or thermal) is another alternative energy source option that is generally considered feasible for tropical and equatorial countries. Even though the accepted standard is 1,000 W/m2 of peak power at sea level, an average solar panel (or photovoltaic — PV — panel), delivers an average of only 19-56W/m2. Solar plants are generally used in cases where smaller amounts of power are required at remote locations. PV is also the most expensive of all options making it less attractive.However, costs have halved in the last five years because of better production technology and growing demand. A typical solar power plant today will pay for itself in five to 10 years.Japan is the leader in solar PV power plants with over 1,200 MW of installed capacity, followed by Germany (794 MW), the US (365 MW) and India (86 MW). Typical solar (PV) power generating stations are in the 300 — 600 KW capacity. The world’s largest PV solar power plants are in Germany and Portugal with a capacity of 10 MW and spread over 62 acres. In 2005, Israel announced the building of a 100 MW solar power plant.Thermal-based solar power plants using reflectors are also in use today, the largest of these in California with a capacity of 350 MW. These are, however, not very popular, like other types of solar power options.It is, therefore, very clear from the above that Pakistan needs to aggressively pursue ways to increase its power-generating capacity. The best options available today are nuclear and coal, followed by wind and solar. Hydroelectricity can only be pursued after all environmental, ecological and geopolitical issues are settled with a consensus among all four provinces.Pakistan needs to set up at least a dozen nuclear power plants, large coal fired plants, wind farms and solar plants in the next 10 years to generate about 20,000 MW of electricity. We need to invest at least a billion dollars a year in developing the infrastructure and establishing power plants using nuclear, coal, wind and solar technology. We need to cut back on non-development expenditures by at least one billion dollars a year to invest in energy needs.Industrialisation around the world has taken place because of the abundance of reliable and cheap electrical power (infrastructure, human resource and government incentives follow). Reliable and cheap availability of electric power in Pakistan will lead to large-scale investment in industry, creation of jobs, elimination of unemployment and poverty, greater manufacturing and exports, trade surplus and the reduction of deficits. It will lead to a prosperous Pakistan.
Friday, December 26, 2008
Woman Empowerment
Woman Empowerment
Introduction
Religion and Woman
2.1 Islam and Woman
2.2 Christianity and woman
2.3 Hinduism and woman
Status of woman
3.1 Woman in the west
3.2 Woman in Africa
3.3 Woman in Asia
3.4 Woman in the Islamic world
Rights of woman
Duties of woman
History of woman empowerment
woman empowerment in Islam
7.1 Economical Rights
7.2 Social Rights
7.3 Gender Equality
No gender discrimination
Benefits of women empowerment
9.1 Poverty Alleviation
9.2 Improved Health Standards
9.3 Spread Of Education
9.4 Improvement of social standards
9.5 Availability of work force
Issues and Conflicts
10.1 Opposition of Religious Cult
10.2 Disharmony with the local Cultures
10.3 Resistance to Changing values
10.4 Propaganda
Women empowerment in Pakistan
11.1 Special quota in Jobs
11.2 Representation in local and national legislatures
11.3 Legislation for the removal of anti-woman laws
11.4 Micro finance Schemes
11.5 Education for woman
11.6 Health facilities
Barriers of women empowerment
12.1 lack of education
12.2 poverty
12.3 Male domination
12.4 Cultural Constrains and Taboos
12.5 Economic Dependence
12.6 Gap between Practice and theory
12.7 Lack of political Will
United Nations roles for Women empowerment
Demerits of Women empowerment
Conclusion
What are the Millennium Development Goals?
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that respond to the world's main development challenges. The MDGs are drawn from the actions and targets contained in the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations-and signed by 147 heads of state and governments during the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000.
The eight MDGs break down into 21 quantifiable targets that are measured by 60 indicators.
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
1.1 Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day
1.2 Poverty gap ratio
1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person employed
1.5 Employment-to-population ratio
1.6 Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day
1.7 Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment
1.8 Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age
1.9 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary education
2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary
2.3 Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
3.1 Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
4.1 Under-five mortality rate
4.2 Infant mortality rate
4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children immunised against measles
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
5.1 Maternal mortality ratio
5.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate
5.4 Adolescent birth rate
5.5 Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits)
5.6 Unmet need for family planning
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
6.1 HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years
6.2 Condom use at last high-risk sex
6.3 Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS
6.4 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years
6.5 Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to antiretroviral drugs
6.6 Incidence and death rates associated with malaria
6.7 Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets
6.8 Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs
6.9 Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
6.10 Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest
7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
7.5 Proportion of total water resources used
7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction
7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility
7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums
Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
8.1 Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors’ gross national income
8.2 Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation)
8.3 Proportion of bilateral official development assistance of OECD/DAC donors that is untied
8.4 ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their gross national incomes
8.5 ODA received in small island developing States as a proportion of their gross national incomes
8.6 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and least developed countries, admitted free of duty
8.7 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing from developing countries
8.8 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of their gross domestic product
8.9 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity
.10 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)
8.11 Debt relief committed under HIPC and MDRI Initiatives
8.12 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services
8.13 Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis
.14 Telephone lines per 100 population
8.15 Cellular subscribers per 100 population
8.16 Internet users per 100 population
The MDGs:
synthesise, in a single package, many of the most important commitments made separately at the international conferences and summits of the 1990s;
recognise explicitly the interdependence between growth, poverty reduction and sustainable development;
acknowledge that development rests on the foundations of democratic governance, the rule of law, respect for human rights and peace and security;
are based on time-bound and measurable targets accompanied by indicators for monitoring progress; and
bring together, in the eighth Goal, the responsibilities of developing countries with those of developed countries, founded on a global partnership endorsed at the International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey, Mexico in March 2002, and again at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development in August 2002.
Implementation of the MDGs
In 2001, in response to the world leaders' request, UN Secretary General presented the Road Map Towards the Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, an integrated and comprehensive overview of the situation, outlining potential strategies for action designed to meet the goals and commitments of the Millennium Declaration.The road map has been followed up since then with annual reports. In 2002, the annual report focused on progress made in the prevention of armed conflict and the treatment and prevention of diseases, including HIV/AIDS and Malaria. In 2003, emphasis was placed on strategies for development and strategies for sustainable development. In 2004, it was on bridging the digital divide and curbing transnational crime.
In 2005, the Secretary-General prepared the first comprehensive five-yearly report on progress toward achieving the MDGs The report reviews the implementation of decisions taken at the international conferences and special sessions on the least developed countries, progress on HIV/AIDS and financing for development and sustainable development.
History
Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". The first wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The second wave refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s.
First wave
First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage. Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time.
In Britain the Suffragettes campaigned for the women's vote. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over eighteen. In the United States leaders of this movement included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. Other important leaders include Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union), others resembling the diversity and radicalism of much of second-wave feminism (such as Matilda Joslyn Gage and the National Woman Suffrage Association). In the United States first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.The term first wave, was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities.
The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, was hostile to abortion.
Second wave
Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The scholar Imelda Whelehan suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA. Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with what is termed third-wave feminism. The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage, whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as ending discrimination.
The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political" which became synonymous with the second wave. Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures.
Women's Liberation in the USA
The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964 and first appeared in print in 1966. By 1968, although the term Women’s Liberation Front appeared in the magazine Ramparts, it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement. Bra-burning also became associated with the movement. One of the most vocal critics of the women's liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual Gloria Jean Watkins (who uses the pseudonym "bell hooks") who argues that this movement glossed over race and class and thus failed to address "the issues that divided women". She highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women's movement in her book Feminist theory from margin to center (1984).[37]
Third wave
Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women.
A post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave's ideology. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference feminists such as the psychologist Carol Gilligan (who believes that there are important differences between the sexes) and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning.
Post-feminism
Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.[45] Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.[46] Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.[47]
One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.[48]
Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.[49][50]
In her book Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, Susan Faludi argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. She argues that it constructed the women's liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights.[51]
Angela McRobbie argues that adding the prefix post to feminism undermines the strides that feminism has made in achieving equality for everyone, including women. Post-feminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved and that feminists can now focus on something else entirely. McRobbie believes that post-feminism is most clearly seen on so-called feminist media products, such as Bridget Jones's Diary, Sex and the City, and Ally McBeal. Female characters like Bridget Jones and Carrie Bradshaw claim to be liberated and clearly enjoy their sexuality, but what they are constantly searching for is the one man who will make everything worthwhile. [52]
French feminism
French feminism refers to a branch of feminist thinking from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body".[53] The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition[54] such as Julia Kristeva.
The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays, biographies, and an autobiography. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. As an existentialist, she accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept that existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as the Other, this de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression. She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal, and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside.
In the 1970s french feminists approached feminism with the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as female, or feminine writing). Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise.[45] The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world".
Introduction
Religion and Woman
2.1 Islam and Woman
2.2 Christianity and woman
2.3 Hinduism and woman
Status of woman
3.1 Woman in the west
3.2 Woman in Africa
3.3 Woman in Asia
3.4 Woman in the Islamic world
Rights of woman
Duties of woman
History of woman empowerment
woman empowerment in Islam
7.1 Economical Rights
7.2 Social Rights
7.3 Gender Equality
No gender discrimination
Benefits of women empowerment
9.1 Poverty Alleviation
9.2 Improved Health Standards
9.3 Spread Of Education
9.4 Improvement of social standards
9.5 Availability of work force
Issues and Conflicts
10.1 Opposition of Religious Cult
10.2 Disharmony with the local Cultures
10.3 Resistance to Changing values
10.4 Propaganda
Women empowerment in Pakistan
11.1 Special quota in Jobs
11.2 Representation in local and national legislatures
11.3 Legislation for the removal of anti-woman laws
11.4 Micro finance Schemes
11.5 Education for woman
11.6 Health facilities
Barriers of women empowerment
12.1 lack of education
12.2 poverty
12.3 Male domination
12.4 Cultural Constrains and Taboos
12.5 Economic Dependence
12.6 Gap between Practice and theory
12.7 Lack of political Will
United Nations roles for Women empowerment
Demerits of Women empowerment
Conclusion
What are the Millennium Development Goals?
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that respond to the world's main development challenges. The MDGs are drawn from the actions and targets contained in the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by 189 nations-and signed by 147 heads of state and governments during the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000.
The eight MDGs break down into 21 quantifiable targets that are measured by 60 indicators.
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
1.1 Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day
1.2 Poverty gap ratio
1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person employed
1.5 Employment-to-population ratio
1.6 Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day
1.7 Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment
1.8 Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age
1.9 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary education
2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary
2.3 Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
3.1 Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
4.1 Under-five mortality rate
4.2 Infant mortality rate
4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children immunised against measles
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
5.1 Maternal mortality ratio
5.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate
5.4 Adolescent birth rate
5.5 Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits)
5.6 Unmet need for family planning
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
6.1 HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years
6.2 Condom use at last high-risk sex
6.3 Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS
6.4 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years
6.5 Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to antiretroviral drugs
6.6 Incidence and death rates associated with malaria
6.7 Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets
6.8 Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with appropriate anti-malarial drugs
6.9 Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
6.10 Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly observed treatment short course
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest
7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
7.5 Proportion of total water resources used
7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction
7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility
7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums
Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
8.1 Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors’ gross national income
8.2 Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water and sanitation)
8.3 Proportion of bilateral official development assistance of OECD/DAC donors that is untied
8.4 ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their gross national incomes
8.5 ODA received in small island developing States as a proportion of their gross national incomes
8.6 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and least developed countries, admitted free of duty
8.7 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products and textiles and clothing from developing countries
8.8 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of their gross domestic product
8.9 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity
.10 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)
8.11 Debt relief committed under HIPC and MDRI Initiatives
8.12 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services
8.13 Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis
.14 Telephone lines per 100 population
8.15 Cellular subscribers per 100 population
8.16 Internet users per 100 population
The MDGs:
synthesise, in a single package, many of the most important commitments made separately at the international conferences and summits of the 1990s;
recognise explicitly the interdependence between growth, poverty reduction and sustainable development;
acknowledge that development rests on the foundations of democratic governance, the rule of law, respect for human rights and peace and security;
are based on time-bound and measurable targets accompanied by indicators for monitoring progress; and
bring together, in the eighth Goal, the responsibilities of developing countries with those of developed countries, founded on a global partnership endorsed at the International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey, Mexico in March 2002, and again at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development in August 2002.
Implementation of the MDGs
In 2001, in response to the world leaders' request, UN Secretary General presented the Road Map Towards the Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, an integrated and comprehensive overview of the situation, outlining potential strategies for action designed to meet the goals and commitments of the Millennium Declaration.The road map has been followed up since then with annual reports. In 2002, the annual report focused on progress made in the prevention of armed conflict and the treatment and prevention of diseases, including HIV/AIDS and Malaria. In 2003, emphasis was placed on strategies for development and strategies for sustainable development. In 2004, it was on bridging the digital divide and curbing transnational crime.
In 2005, the Secretary-General prepared the first comprehensive five-yearly report on progress toward achieving the MDGs The report reviews the implementation of decisions taken at the international conferences and special sessions on the least developed countries, progress on HIV/AIDS and financing for development and sustainable development.
History
Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". The first wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The second wave refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s.
First wave
First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage. Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time.
In Britain the Suffragettes campaigned for the women's vote. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over eighteen. In the United States leaders of this movement included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. Other important leaders include Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union), others resembling the diversity and radicalism of much of second-wave feminism (such as Matilda Joslyn Gage and the National Woman Suffrage Association). In the United States first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.The term first wave, was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities.
The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, was hostile to abortion.
Second wave
Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The scholar Imelda Whelehan suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA. Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with what is termed third-wave feminism. The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage, whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as ending discrimination.
The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political" which became synonymous with the second wave. Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures.
Women's Liberation in the USA
The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964 and first appeared in print in 1966. By 1968, although the term Women’s Liberation Front appeared in the magazine Ramparts, it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement. Bra-burning also became associated with the movement. One of the most vocal critics of the women's liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual Gloria Jean Watkins (who uses the pseudonym "bell hooks") who argues that this movement glossed over race and class and thus failed to address "the issues that divided women". She highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women's movement in her book Feminist theory from margin to center (1984).[37]
Third wave
Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women.
A post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave's ideology. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference feminists such as the psychologist Carol Gilligan (who believes that there are important differences between the sexes) and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning.
Post-feminism
Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.[45] Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.[46] Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.[47]
One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.[48]
Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.[49][50]
In her book Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, Susan Faludi argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. She argues that it constructed the women's liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights.[51]
Angela McRobbie argues that adding the prefix post to feminism undermines the strides that feminism has made in achieving equality for everyone, including women. Post-feminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved and that feminists can now focus on something else entirely. McRobbie believes that post-feminism is most clearly seen on so-called feminist media products, such as Bridget Jones's Diary, Sex and the City, and Ally McBeal. Female characters like Bridget Jones and Carrie Bradshaw claim to be liberated and clearly enjoy their sexuality, but what they are constantly searching for is the one man who will make everything worthwhile. [52]
French feminism
French feminism refers to a branch of feminist thinking from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body".[53] The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition[54] such as Julia Kristeva.
The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays, biographies, and an autobiography. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. As an existentialist, she accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept that existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as the Other, this de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression. She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal, and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside.
In the 1970s french feminists approached feminism with the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as female, or feminine writing). Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise.[45] The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world".
Higher Education as an agent of change
Higher Education as an agent of change
1 – Introduction
2 – Meaning of Higher Education
3 - Attributes of Higher education
Relevance
Universal Appeal
Quality
4 - Higher Education Brings Change
Technology
Industry
Business
Literacy
Poverty Alleviation
Research work
Diversification
Mindset of the People
Stops brain Drain
Brings out the best
Future Building
Job Creation
5 – Role of University in Higher Education
6 – Role of higher education in European revolution
7 – Role of Higher Education in turn around of Indian Economy
8 – Higher Education and China’s Industrial Development
9 - State of Education Higher Education In Pakistan till 2001
10 – Higher Education Commission of Pakistan performance
11 – Criticism of HEC’s performance
12 – Reality about HEC’s Efforts
13 – Higher Education and its importance for Pakistan’s Future
14 – Conclusion
Criticism of HEC
Former minister Ishaq Khan Khakwani on Monday blasted the outgoing chairman Higher Education Commission, Dr Attaur Rehman, for what he termed the massive misuse of billions of rupees during his eight years in office.A fiery Khakwani demanded a special audit of the HEC accounts. He wondered where those billions were spent, which were given to Dr Rehman by General Pervez Musharraf for the uplift of higher education.“One may rightly expect from someone like Dr Rehman, who was in office for eight consecutive years, to turn around the whole system of higher education, particularly when the government was pumping billions into the accounts of the HEC. But after spending Rs 26 billion, he could not even set up a single foreign university”, he regretted.Sharply reacting against the praises for the outgoing HEC chairman, Ishaq Khan told The News that he was amazed to see that no one was questioning Dr Rehman about those six foreign universities, which he had planned to set up in Pakistan.Mr Khakwani alleged that those billions which could have changed the whole education system were spent by Rehman on foreign trips, TA/DA and holding of seminars in five-star hotels.He said the Dr Rehman‚Äôs influence during the previous government could be judged from the fact that the whole education ministry got only Rs 6 billions in budget for the whole country but the HEC alone got more than Rs 26 billions. He said that the huge amount was given to Dr Rehman to improve the educational standards for only 3 per cent students.Khakwani alleged that more than Rs 200 million might have been spent alone on TA/DA of only few top guns of the HEC.He recalled that during one of the federal cabinet meetings, he had critically evaluated the claims of the HEC and the whole cabinet had clapped after he had finished his arguments. Khakwani said he had told Dr Rehman in a cabinet meeting that instead of setting up six foreign universities he should have established only one. But he regretted that even today when Dr Rehman is going home nobody was asking him about those six foreign universities.He demanded of the auditor general of Pakistan to conduct an audit of the HEC accounts so the people should know where those billions were spent.On the other hand, Dr Attaur Rehman defended his position while talking to the News. “We often differed in opinions on the issues concerning the HEC”, Dr Rehman said, adding he did not want to discus those differences with the media at this stage.Dr Rehman said the HEC accounts had always been audited and rejected the charges of financial irregularities against him. About the six foreign universities, he said projects of setting up four such universities were approved hardly four months back. ‚ÄúChina, Italy, Austria and Germany are ready to set up universities here,‚Äù he said, admitting that no foreign university was operating in the country presently.When asked why the Americans and British universities did not set up their camps here, he said they were not ready to establish universities in Pakistan.On his performance as the chairman HEC, he said one should note how much the international institutions had appreciated the uplift of the higher educational during his eight years in office.
HEC’s performance
“As many as 47 new universities had been established and 18 new campuses of universities have also been established during the six year period of HEC’s existence,” he said. University enrolment has almost tripled from 135,123 to 363,700 during this 6 year period of HEC thereby providing far more opportunities of our youth to acquire higher education.“It has been alleged that 6 foreign universities were planned to be set up in Pakistan but not a single one has been established. Actually, it was only in February 2008 that 4 projects for the establishment of universities in collaboration with Germany, Italy, Austria and China were approved. Subsequently, the new government established a Cabinet Committee to review the programme and to consider if funding could be made available for it. The Cabinet has yet to make a final decision in this respect and so the programme has been essentially frozen, largely due to the serious financial situation of Pakistan. How could money have been wasted for this programme when not a single new building for these universities has so far been built or faculty hired? The need to establish foreign universities in Pakistan has been questioned. It needs to be understood that without a critical number of world class engineers and scientists, Pakistan cannot hope to compete in the highly competitive global economy. Our students would be exposed to high quality faculty from foreign countries, follow their curriculum, pass their examinations and get degrees from top universities from Germany, France etc. They would therefore reach international standards of education, science and engineering in a very short period. India produces over 400,000 engineering graduates annually while Pakistan produces only about 8,000 engineering graduates. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) set up in 1960s helped to transform India and ushered in an IT revolution—-as a result India presently earns tens of billions of dollars in exports of software. India has also decided to expand its present programme of IITs and also significantly increase the number of Indian Institute of Science so that it could compete with advanced countries. It has been claimed that HEC programmes have not had any major impact on higher education. This is completely incorrect as proved by the following facts: (a) In a recent USAID Report (still in draft form) it is stated that: “We are very impressed with the breadth, scope, and depth of the reforms implemented by the HEC since 2002. No other developing country we know has made such spectacular progress.” (b) The world’s top science journal “Nature” in an editorial published on 28th August 2008 acknowledged “the solid foundations” built by HEC during the last 6 years under my Chairmanship and urged the new government to continue to support this important sector to prevent us from going back to the “Stone Age”. (c) The World Bank was asked by Government of Pakistan to carry out the performance audit of HEC. A 128 page report published by the World Bank has praised the excellent initiatives by HEC. (d) The British Council in another recent comprehensive report published earlier this year has praised my own leadership as Chairman HEC in the following words “I have worked in many countries in South America, the Middle East, North Africa, and in Russia and India, over the last six years. None in my view, with the exception of India , has the potential of Pakistan for the UK university sector, largely because of the dynamic, strategic leadership of the Chairman of HEC” (e) “Science Watch” published by the Thomson Reuters group have recently given Pakistan the “Rising Star” status in five fields of science and engineering, the highest number achieved by any country in the world. (f) The enormous emphasis laid by HEC on research has resulted in 400% increase in research output in international journals from Pakistani universities. The research output in international journals originating from Pakistani institutions has grown from a only about 600 research articles in year 2002 to over 1714 by the year 2006 and 2407 articles in 2007. (g) During the 56 year period (1947-2003) not a single Pakistani university could qualify to reach the ranks of the top 600 universities in the world. Today 3 of Pakistani universities are in this category with the National University of Science and Technology standing at a very respectable number 376.(k) Previously our degrees were not recognized internationally as we had only 16 years of study programmes before students obtained the Masters degrees. HEC introduced a 4-year undergraduate programme which is being implemented in a phased manner over a 3 year period. This will result in international recognition of Pakistani degrees. (h) A huge emphasis has been placed on quality of education. National rankings of our universities were published, thereby generating competition.. Quality Assurance Cells have been established in different universities and student evaluation of teachers’ performance introduced. (i) Video-conferencing facility has been provided in 28 universities with the key feature of live interactive lectures from technologically advanced countries. (j) A major national research grant programme was launched. The National Research Programme for Universities (NRPU) facilitates research pursuits of researchers. The year saw the approval of 195 projects in Agriculture, Food Sciences, Archeology, Biological Sciences, Engineering, Computer Science, Mathematics and Pharmacy for funding over a maximum period of three years. There is tangible excitement in the air where faculty members are working in their state-of-the -art and well equipped laboratories. (k) Strict financial discipline is maintained by HEC. All its programmes have been regularly audited by government auditors as well as private international auditors. It is also the first government institution which fully implemented SAP accounting system thereby being completely transparent in all transactions. (l) A major programme of post- doctoral training in top foreign universities has been initiated which has already benefited some 200 faculty members. (m) A strict project monitoring system was introduced and quarterly reports are sent to Planning, Finance and the Chancellors of public sector institutions. (n) A transparent process of appointment of Vice- Chancellors was introduced based on open advertisement and final recommendation by a search committee comprising eminent scholars. It has been stated in an earlier article which appeared in the newspaper that too much money has been spent on higher education at the cost of lower level education. This is incorrect. Less than 15% of the entire education budget is spent on higher education. According to international norms at least 25-30% of national budget should be spent on higher education. During the last two years per student expenditure has actually gone down by about 30% due to inflation and the tripling student enrolment. Has HEC made a difference in the last 6 years as compared to performance of the erstwhile UGC in the previous 56 years. One needs only to talk to any Vice-Chancellor of a public sector university or visit hundreds of new institutions established during the last 6 years to get a fruitful answer. One is at liberty to turn a blind eye to HEC’s achievements, but they will not cease to exist. What is presented above are undeniable facts and in the final analysis what matters is not what my supporters or critics say, but the opinions of neutral international experts mentioned above who have carried out a detailed analysis of the Higher Education sector in Pakistan and paid glowing tributes to our achievements. To identify me with President Musharraf or any other past government is incorrect, although I must acknowledge the tremendous support provided to HEC by General Musharraf. I am a scientist and not a politician. I received four Civil Awards (Tamgha-i-Imtiaz, Sitara-i-Imtiaz, Hilal-i-Imtiaz and Nishan-i-Imtiaz) from successive governments of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, Mohtarama Shaheed Benazir Bhutto and Mr. Shaukat Aziz. I have tried to serve my country honestly and to the best of my abilities and will continue to do so Inshallah in the years to come.
The Higher Education Commission, set up in 2002 under the Pevez Musharraf-led government as a body to regulate higher education in the country, seems to be running into increased trouble as a result of budgetary cuts by the new government. A development grant of Rs4 billion, due this month, has reportedly been cut to Rs2 billion. The HEC budget had also been slashed earlier, with some quarters suggesting this may have been one factor in the decision by the former chairman of the body to step down. The HEC has been a somewhat controversial setup. The policy of spending a huge percentage of the country's limited education budget on higher education, accessible to a tiny minority in a nation where literacy still stands at little above 50 per cent has been questioned by many. Very few of the children who enroll at schools are able to make it to colleges, especially given that the dropout rate for primary school is almost an astonishing 50 per cent (among the highest in the world). The argument then goes that Pakistan needs to focus on improving education at the primary level as a key priority. This having been said, the HEC has to its credit some achievements. In a situation where standards have slumped so sharply that employers report encountering post-graduates unable to describe global warming or write even a short paragraph with originality and coherence, the HEC's efforts to push up the level of dissertations and of scientific research is commendable. So are its' efforts to tackle the menace of plagiarism, with several cases involving academics uncovered at prestigious universities. For these reasons, it would be wise to keep the body intact and ensure it can continue its role – even while directing more attention to the state of education at lower levels.
Higher Education and its role in European development
– The Role of Higher Education" focused on the future role of higher education from the point of view of a large industrial concern, underlining the importance of lifelong learning and the importance of graduates with both professional skills and broad
personal competencies. main dimensions of the World Higher Education are relevance, quality, internationalization,
and finance and management.
No chain being stronger than its weakest link, higher education should be a strong part of a strong educational system, as well as play a key role in opening new futures by contributing, in close collaboration with other partners, to the innovation chain. Similarly, higher education institutions have a key role to play in European society by contributing to equitable and sustainable development and to the culture of peace. They should act critically and objectively on the basis of rigour and merit, actively promoting intellectual and moral solidarity by serving individual needs. In a world of in-depth transformations, higher education institutions are expected to act responsibly and responsively. They are to foresee, anticipate, and influence changes in all quarters of society and be prepared and able to differentiate and to adapt accordingly.
Given the growing individual demand for higher learning and the resulting pressures on higher education institutions, there is a need for ever more institutional diversification, for new policies of access to higher education, and for a structured development of lifelong learning. In order to better respond to the needs of diversification, a wider and more imaginative institutional profiling is expected to occur within higher education systems, thus leaving less room for categorization of institutions. At the same time, more programmatic diversification within the institutions is required. Lifelong learning for personal and professional development, for career change, transferable skills, and matching supply and demand for highly trained personnel is essential. Higher education institutions must be able to offer corresponding courses in continuing education and in alliance with employers and other social partners so as to ensure that they are widely available and contribute to a coherent system of higher education. Thus it is essential to define the links in the overall "educational chain" and the relations between them so that individuals can independently manage their learning at whatever level.
In response to this increasingly differentiated demand, coherence means flexibility with regard to: access, content, breadth, depth, and duration of programmes, means of delivery, examination, and validation. Thus, new policies of access should be designed on the basis of merit and equal opportunities, expanding student profiles, and reaching out to hitherto underprivileged groups of society.
Higher education institutions should pay increased attention to promoting strategies for the conceptualization and the management of educational innovation, particularly with reference to organization of contents, learning materials, teaching methods, and graduates' personal profiles as a response to the multiple challenges of their environments.
The shift from teaching to learning implies self-managed learning, a coaching role for the teacher, professional support services, investment in new delivery, and quality assurance mechanisms, especially in off-campus operations. It should also lead to a new definition of scholarship balancing discovery and transmission as well as the integration and application of knowledge. A crucial lever for change is a creative and well-defined personnel policy which opens up teaching as a career, supported by appropriate staff development programmes. Particular attention should be paid to the promotion of opportunities for women, including in top positions in higher education. It also involves a new approach to curriculum development taking into account multi- and interdisciplinarity and flexibility of choice, but in a coherent system which allows for modularization, credit transfer, the validation of work experience, and the organization of the academic year in semesters both at national and international level.
Modern information and communication technologies have major implications for the provision of education and training and require a fundamental restructuring of the ways in which teaching and learning objectives are delivered. Higher education institutions have a key role to play in exploiting, for themselves and together with other partners, the potential of innovative information and communication
technologies for academic development. Given the increased demand for higher education and its democratization, there is a pressing need to share good practice and to ensure academic quality standards by incorporating a culture of quality and the instruments for quality assurance at both systemic and institutional level. The new roles both of the teachers and of the students as well as the changing
relationship to government and world of work imply the definition of a new and explicit "educational contract" between the different partners, setting out rights and responsibilities for all concerned. It will be especially important to ensure that the voice of the students is heard at all stages of the learning process. The paradigmatic shift from teaching to learning requires an investigation of the desirability of establishing a European Centre for Teaching and Learning to act as an observatory of good practice and innovation bringing together higher education institutions and their stakeholders at local, national, and international level.
Research, seen as the process leading to the systematic development of new knowledge, is central to the effectiveness of all higher education, while the type of research and the resources and time allocated to its promotion may vary according to the mission statement of the institution and its position within a coherent system of higher education. Accordingly, uniformity of research missions should give way to differentiated institutional policies focused on achievable and competitive performances. Research is important for the contribution of higher education to the innovation chain, by a strategic mobilization of multilateral co-operation between city and regional governments, higher education institutions, industry, and business. In addition, it contributes to a constant supply of qualified young researchers. At the same time, a strong link between research and teaching opens opportunities for involving good researchers in the teaching process. Multi- and interdisciplinary research is required more and more to solve pressing societal problems, thus also contributing to sustainable human development. There is, however, increasing concern about the ability of the public purse to provide
adequate finances to meet these escalating needs. To ensure continued high quality research, governments need to provide adequate funding for basic research infrastructure, but within a competitive framework. Research funding allocations should be based on quality criteria and transparent auditing procedures. Care should be taken to avoid a mismatch between stakeholders' needs for interdisciplinary research and governmental/peer processes of research, audit, and funding, which may be focused on single disciplines. Research in the social sciences and the humanities should not be neglected. Support mechanisms at national and international level to stimulate and sustain research groups in less developed systems of higher education should be strengthened in order to support institutional development rather than exacerbating brain drain phenomena. Institutions are encouraged to develop Codes of Practice together with their partners for resolving questions of intellectual property regarding the results of externally funded research. Similarly, Codes of Ethics for the choice and conduct of research projects should be elaborated. Strategies for diversifying funding sources should be actively sought. Institutions attracting research funding in this way should ensure that their services are realistically costed and priced and that a percentage of this extra income is used to build up an internal development fund for emerging projects or poorly funded areas. Networking with corporate laboratories, multinational corporations, especially at regional level, has a particular role to play in enhancing the quality and scope of institutional research as well as its resource base. In a labour market which is dynamic and heterogeneous, universities should not base their long-term orientations on labour market or manpower planning, but on social demand. They therefore have to prepare their students for meeting the challenges of an intrinsically uncertain labour market. In addition to their professional qualifications, graduates require a broad set of attributes in terms of personal and transferable skills and competencies in order to increase their employability in a knowledge society. To sustain a well-rounded individual development, full participation of stakeholders, in particular representatives of students, teachers, the world of work, and public authorities in higher education policy formation, and curriculum development is essential. As intelligent providers, higher education institutions need to develop their knowledge of markets, anticipate needs, be aware of competition, and invest in processes of quality assurance. Students have to prepare for an increasingly diversified market, from employment in large industrial concerns to small enterprises, from working in the public sector to the service sector, and not forgetting individual entrepreneurship. There is a special need for the promotion of more constructive relations of higher education institutions to the world of small and medium size enterprises as the sector employing the largest number of graduates.
Higher education institutions should provide systematic information in schools and enterprises to guide student choices, provide placements as an integral part of degree courses, and offer research training in a work environment, as well as career guidance services at all times. Higher education institutions are as much concerned with the creation as with the transmission of cultural values. Although it is misleading to speak of "European" values per se, in the specific European context and in terms of the European university tradition, a framework does exist in terms of cultural unity through diversity. This means agreeing to disagree in order to pursue open, critical, and
constructive dialogue. As a consequence, higher education institutions have a key role to play, not only as centres, but also as incubators of cultural diversity and of multiracial harmony and understanding. This means they have a particularly important role to play in
creating a civil society and in preparing young people for shaping and living in a democratic society, a place where higher education plays an active role in public debate on ethical and policy questions. These values should permeate all higher education curricula; their transmission, especially as far as ethical considerations are concerned, should not be limited to special courses. Special emphasis should be placed on language training, multidisciplinarity, and independent and critical learning associated with teamwork. With
the help of higher education institutions, this process should start in primary and secondary education. Attention should be paid to incorporating the European dimension as an integral part of teaching and research and of sustaining the diversity of the learning experience through student and staff mobility. This means strengthening existing provision for the recognition of degrees and diplomas, in particular through the implementation of the UNESCO/Council of Europe Joint Convention, and supporting the further development of a coherent credit transfer system. Furthermore, all efforts should be made to remove practical, administrative, and legal obstacles to academic exchange at institutional, national, and international level. In this respect, the importance of networking and true international partnerships for co-operation in teaching, research, or service is paramount. A constructive partnership between government, business and industry, and higher education institutions is a critical element in the implementation of an Agenda for Change in Higher Education. The role of government is expected to shift from bureaucratic control to policy steering, stable funding formulae, quality monitoring, project-based investment, and providing a cushion against the wider excesses of the demands of the free market. Business and industry should be encouraged to define more clearly their needs as clients and to work together with higher education institutions as training providers. Higher education institutions should be entrusted with a greater institutional autonomy, thus enhancing their capacity for change, for acting responsibly, effectively, and entrepreneurially as "learning organizations", while making them more accountable in terms of performance. Inter-institutional alliances should be a substantial lever for institutional change and development. In view of the common assumptions on trends affecting future university development in Europe, the growing systematization of institutional management is a welcome development as is the corresponding awareness of the need for internal strategic planning and rethinking, both for intrinsic reasons and in response to initiatives from national higher education planners.
The Importance of Higher Education
In the last decade, Canada’s universities produced more than 1.25 million bachelor’s graduates, 225,000 master’s graduates and almost 40,000 PhDs. These graduates bring critical thinking, communications, problem-solving, creativity and research skills as well as the specialized knowledge of their fields of study to the workplace. The labour market clearly values these individuals and rewards their knowledge and skills; over their lifetimes university graduates earn $1 million more on average than do those without a postsecondary education. The focus of the federal contribution to higher education has been on direct financial assistance to students through vehicles such as the Canada Student Loans Program and in financial transfers to the provinces, which in turn provide operating grants to the institutions in their respective jurisdictions. The federal government announced a variety of significant measures in its 2004 budget with respect to student assistance. AUCC welcomed the announced package of student assistance measures, but joins a number of other organizations representing the postsecondary education community in stressing that the existing transfer mechanism is proving inadequate. The TD Economics study concludes that “the system is no longer well placed to serve the future needs of Canadians.” In brief, Canadians are demanding access to higher education opportunities at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Meeting this challenge will require solutions that address quality, access and capacity. AUCC projected in 2001 that there will be a need for at least 200,000 more university spaces during the decade 2001- 2011 to respond to growing demand. However, the demand for university degrees is growing even faster than predicted. There were 748,000 full-time university students in Canada in 2003-04, an increase of 100,000 students in just two years. Early indications for 2004-05 suggest that the number of students has grown by an additional 20,000. Despite growing provincial government investments in recent years, enrolment growth means that government spending per student has dropped from about $9,700 in 1994 to $8,600 in 1999 and to about $8,000 in 2004. For the future, the fundamental challenge is two-fold: to ensure that no academically qualified Canadians are denied the opportunity to benefit from a university education, and to ensure that universities have the necessary capacity to provide quality higher education
to increasing umbers of students. While it is important to make university education affordable for students, it is also necessary to ensure that universities have the physical and human infrastructure they need to provide a high-quality education. AUCC and others have offered a number of suggestions about how the federal government could help meet this challenge of strategic importance to all of Canada. For example, six organizations wrote a joint letter to the Prime Minister in December 2003 urging him to work with the provinces to address the capacity issue. We recognize that all interested parties must continue to examine the issues and to work cooperatively to find creative solutions. In this regard, we are encouraged that provincial ministers of education have responded by declaring through the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) their intent to focus on postsecondary education issues, as well as literacy and Aboriginal education, and to discuss these issues with the federal government. In particular they note their interest in funding for infrastructure costs, the indirect costs of research, and increased access. In response, the federal Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development, Joe Volpe, stated: “I look forward to working with CMEC on our shared concerns in the areas of literacy, Aboriginal education and post-secondary education capacity. These are key priorities for the Government of Canada as well. We have a strong record of collaboration with provincial/territorial governments on student financial assistance. I look forward to building on this success.”
The Importance of University Research and Knowledge Transfer
Canadian university research takes place in a highly competitive global context. While federal investments in research have increased significantly in recent years, our position relative to other countries has changed only slightly, due in part to increased funding on the part of other countries as well. Universities are important venues for research, performing more than one third of all research done in the country. As performers, universities draw on relationships with federal and provincial government partners, the private sector, the not-for-profit sector, and foreign investors; no other research venue has comparable breadth and depth of expertise and strategic coordination services. The crucial importance of university research in Canada’s overall research effort is demonstrated by the growing investments in university research by all sectors in recent years, including federal and provincial governments and the private sector.
At the same time, universities house the nation’s most comprehensive and extensive knowledge banks. They are a constant and consistent source of new knowledge, skills and ideas and maintain the critical mass of researchers, facilities, infrastructure and research
administration resources to perform this unique role. As a former president of Harvard University has observed, “All advanced nations depend increasingly on three critical elements: new discoveries, highly trained personnel, and expert knowledge….universities are primarily responsible for supplying two of these ingredients and are a major source of the third.”2
Given the scale of recent federal investments in university research, it is entirely appropriate to ask about the impacts of those investments, both in terms of the knowledge created by research activities and also in terms of the transfer and application of that
knowledge to Canadian society. There exists a broad consensus that university research has had a range of impacts and contributions, and that these diffuse through society over an extended period of time. While it is too early to offer precise measurements of these impacts and contributions, especially in the short term, it is already possible to discern certain significant trends and impacts. Examples of these include:
A competitive and innovative business environment
University research results in patents, products and jobs for Canadians. To date there have been 680 spin-off companies from universities and affiliated institutions, producing over $2.5 billion in revenues and employing over 19,000 individuals. Beyond this direct effect, however, university research can also lead to improved productivity as well as contributing to regional economic development. Universities as institutions have a significant impact on their communities in terms of economic activity and job creation, as was acknowledged recently by the mayors of Canada’s largest cities. Through mechanisms such as research chairs, centres of excellence, institutes and investigator-led projects, universities are catalysts for innovation across the full spectrum of industries.
A healthy population and a sustainable health system
Many features of the health care system upon which Canadians rely are the product of university research. The diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease is an important element of university research, while our universities train the next generation of health practitioners of all kinds. Between 1991 and 2000, Canadian universities graduated more than 100,000 health care professionals who play a pivotal role in health care delivery in urban and rural communities across Canada. At an economic level, university graduates from all disciplines are less likely to place demands on the health care system, while they contribute a disproportionately large share of the taxes that fund the system.3 While Canadian data are not available, the National Institutes of Health in the U.S. have estimated that the rate of return on publicly funded health research is in the order of 25 to 40 percent.
A highly qualified and adaptable workforce
Universities produce the highly qualified workforce that Canada’s growing knowledgebased economy needs. The number of positions held by workers in these kinds of occupations doubled to 25 percent between 1971 and 2001. University graduates are the pool from which Canada’s research community draws; fully 95 percent of those innovators listed in the recent “Top 40 Under 40” feature of the Report on Business hold university degrees, most from Canadian institutions. Graduates also play a seminal role in managing Canadian organizations of all kinds. According the most recent census data, 44 percent of all senior management positions in Canada are held by university graduates, a significant proportion given that university graduates represent only 19 percent of the working-age population.
An informed and engaged citizenry
University graduates form the “civic core” of our society and are likelier to be informed and engaged citizens. They are more likely to exercise their right to vote and have a higher rate of volunteering or participating in community groups and charitable organizations, for example by contributing an average of 166 hours annually as volunteers. At the same time, university researchers are frequently called upon to provide expert insight and commentary on the issues of the day, whether through the media or in advising government by appearing before Parliamentary committees or other bodies.
A cohesive, diverse and just society
It is important to recognize that university research also has a broader impact on the lives of Canadians. Research provides the tools and direction to promote social inclusion and cohesion and can help Canadians to understand and appreciate the diversity of our communities. University graduates are leaders in creating the social capital required to build a more inclusive and fair society; likewise, university research promotes the better understanding and improved application of a wide range of social services such as child and adult welfare, immigration, justice and policing. Universities also lead more than 50 cultural research networks that study and promote Canada’s cultural diversity.
Thriving and safe communities and cities
Universities are key contributors to many thriving cities and communities across Canada. They serve as catalysts of economic development and renewal and help to improve the safety of our communities through the development of public health measures and a 3 University graduates make up 16 percent of the population over 18, yet contribute almost 33 percent of better understanding of social issues. The Canadian Policy Research Network notes that educational institutions are one of five core factors making important contributions to urban quality of life.
Responsive and responsible government
Governing Canada in a responsive and responsible manner depends on both university research and on the graduates that universities produce. University graduates form the core of the federal public service and account for 54 percent of all senior government managers and officials who oversee the programs and policies that have an impact on Canadians’ daily lives. University research informs public policy development in a wide array of fields, while government departments rely on university expertise for advice and on graduates to staff key positions in the public service.
Universities as a Window on the World
Canadian universities are well-positioned to make a valuable contribution to the federal government’s commitment to enhance Canada’s role and influence in the world, while at the same time providing a window on the world for Canadians. With over 3000 active international partnerships around the world, Canadian universities are already significant actors in Canada’s international relations and these activities underpin a range of foreign policy objectives including fostering global peace and security, finding solutions to global development challenges, promoting Canadian values abroad and building stronger diplomatic, scientific, commercial and trade partnerships, particularly with countries of strategic interest to Canada. AUCC and its members have been actively engaged in the international policy review process and have submitted a discussion paper to Foreign Affairs Canada (FAC) which provides an overview of the breadth and depth of Canadian universities’ international activities. The paper also highlights strengths and challenges with respect to a more effective leveraging of these activities to serve Canada’s international policy goals. One challenge that is particularly pressing is the need to engage a critical mass of Canadian students from a broad range of backgrounds and from all parts of the country in the work/study abroad opportunities offered by Canadian institutions. New data shows that less than one percent of Canadian students participate in an international learning experience for credit at their Canadian university. Lack of financial resources remains the most significant barrier to addressing this situation. At the same time, Canadian universities are poised to help meet the Prime Minister’s challenge to leverage Canada’s R&D capacity to address development needs. The data presented in AUCC’s international policy discussion paper clearly illustrates that Canadian universities have the commitment, expertise, experience, and relationships required to help make this goal a reality.
Higher education is education provided by universities, vocational universities. Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. They also include teacher-training schools, community colleges, and institutes of technology. At the end of a prescribed course of study, a degree, diploma, or certificate is awarded.
Higher education has developed in numerous ways since the end of World War II. Throughout the world, issues such as autonomy and accountability, the impact of technology, the growing role of markets and the privatization of higher education, the role of research and teaching, various efforts toward curriculum reform, and the massive expansion that has characterized higher education systems in most countries have all played important roles in the development of higher education. Universities are international institutions, with common historical roots, and at the same time are embedded in national cultures and circumstances. It is worthwhile to examine the contemporary challenges to higher education in comparative perspective, as most issues affect academe everywhere.
Postsecondary education has expanded since World War II in virtually every country in the world. The growth of postsecondary education has, in proportional terms, been more dramatic than that of primary and secondary education. Writing in 1975, Martin Trow spoke of the transition from elite to mass and then to universal higher education in the industrialized nations. While the United States enrolled some 30 percent of the relevant age cohort (18 - 21 year olds) in higher education in the immediate postwar period, European nations generally maintained an elite higher education system, with fewer than 5 percent of the population attending postsecondary institutions. By the 1960s many European nations educated 15 percent or more of this age group - Sweden for example, enrolled 24 percent in 1970, with France at 17 percent. At the same time, the United States increased its proportion to around 50 percent, approaching universal access. By the mid-1990s many European countries, including France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, enrolled around 50 percent of the relevant age group, and the proportion in the United States increased to three-quarters. While Europe and North America are now relatively stable, middle-income countries and countries in the developing world have continued to expand at a rapid rate.
In the Third World, expansion has been similarly dramatic. Building on tiny and extraordinarily elitist universities, higher education expanded rapidly in the immediate post-independence period. In India, enrollments grew from approximately 100,000 at the time of independence in 1947 to over 6.5 million in the 1990s - although India enrolls just 7 percent of the relevant age group. China enrolls a similar number, though this represents only 5 percent of its young people. China, especially, is engaged in a dramatic expansion program. Expansion in Africa has also been rapid, with the postsecondary student population growing from 21,000 in 1960 to 437,000 in 1983, but with growth stagnating in the 1990s as a result of the economic and political difficulties experienced by many sub-Saharan African countries. Recent economic difficulties in much of sub-Saharan Africa have meant that per-student expenditure has dropped, contributing to a marked deterioration in academic standards. Enrollment growth has also slowed.
Expansion is also a hallmark elsewhere in the non-Western countries. The situation is complex. In some countries, including the larger Latin American nations, the Philippines, and some others, enrollment rates have reached 30 percent or more. In most of the low-income nations, however, enrollments lag far behind. However, growth continues to be rapid in much of the Third World, with accompanying strains on budgets and facilities - and deterioration in standards. Expansion in the Third World has, in general, exceeded that in the industrialized nations, at least in proportional terms. It should be noted that there are significant variations among Third World nations - some countries maintain small and relatively elitist university systems, while others have expanded more rapidly. Among the highest rates of expansion, and now of participation, are in those newly industrialized countries such as South Korea and Taiwan.
There are many reasons for the expansion of higher education. A central cause has been the increasing complexity of modern societies and economies, which have demanded a more highly trained workforce. Almost without exception, postsecondary institutions have been called on to provide the required training. Indeed, training in many fields that had once been imparted on the job has become formalized in institutions of higher education. Whole new fields, such as computer science, have come into existence, and many of these rely on universities as a key source of research and training. Nations now developing scientific and industrial capacity, such as Korea and Taiwan, have depended on academic institutions to provide high-level training and research expertise to a greater extent than was the case during the first industrial revolution in Europe. Not only do academic institutions provide training, they also test and provide certification for many roles and occupations in contemporary society. These roles have been central to universities from their origins in the medieval period, but have been vastly expanded in recent years. A university degree is a prerequisite for an increasing number of occupations in most societies. Indeed, it is fair to say that academic certification is necessary for most positions of power, authority, and prestige in modern societies. This places immense power in the hands of universities. Tests to gain admission to higher education are rites of passage in many societies and are important determinants of future success. Competition within academe varies from country to country, but in most cases an emphasis is also placed on high academic performance and tests in the universities. There are often further examinations to permit entry into specific professions. The role of the university as an examining body has grown for a number of reasons. As expansion has taken place, it has been necessary to provide ever more competitive sorting mechanisms to control access to high-prestige occupations. The universities are also seen as meritocratic institutions that can be trusted to provide fair and impartial tests to measure accomplishment honestly and, therefore, determine access. When such mechanisms break down - as they did in China during the Cultural Revolution - or where they are perceived to be subject to corrupt influences - as in India - the universities are significantly weakened. The older, more informal, and often more ascriptive means of controlling access to prestigious occupations are no longer able to provide the controls needed, nor are they perceived as fair. Entirely new fields have developed where no sorting mechanisms existed, and academic institutions have frequently been called upon to provide not only training but also examination and certification. Expansion has also occurred because the growing segments of the population of modern societies demand it. The middle classes, seeing that academic qualifications are necessary for success, demand access to higher education. Governments generally respond by increasing enrollment. When governments do not move quickly enough, private initiatives frequently establish academic institutions in order to meet the demand. In countries like India, the Philippines, and Bangladesh, a majority of the students are educated in private colleges and universities. At present, there are powerful worldwide trends toward: (1) imposing user fees in the form of higher tuition charges, (2) increasingly stressing private higher education, and (3) defining education as a "private good" in economic terms. These changes are intended to reduce the cost of postsecondary education for governments, while maintaining access - although the long-term implications for the quality of, access to, and control over higher education remain unclear. In most countries, higher education is heavily subsidized by the government, and most, if not all, academic institutions are in the public sector. While there is a growing trend toward private initiative and management sharing responsibility for education with public institutions, governments will likely continue to be central to funding postsecondary education, although the private sector is currently the major source of growth worldwide. The dramatic expansion of academic institutions in the postwar period has proved very expensive for governments and has led to a diversification of funding sources. Nonetheless, the demand for access has been an extraordinarily powerful one.
China
In 2002, there were slightly over 2000 higher education institutions in PRC. Close to 1400 were regular higher education institutions (HEIs). A little more than 600 were higher education institutions for adults. Combined enrollment in 2002 was 11,256,800. Of this close to 40 percent were new recruits. Total graduate student enrolment was 501,000.
In 2005, there were about 4,000 Chinese institutions. Student enrollment increased to 15 million, with rapid growth that is expected to peak in 2008. However, the higher education system does not meet the needs of 85 percent of the college-aged population.
Since 1998, 10 universities have been targeted by the Chinese government to become “world-class” - including Peking and Tsinghua Universities. To achieve that goal, the government promised to increase the educational allocation in the national budget by 1 percent a year for each of the five years following 1998. When Chinese president Jiang Zemin attended the hundredth anniversary ceremony at Beijing University in 1998 and the ninetieth anniversary ceremony at Tsinghua University in 2001, he emphasized this ambitious goal of advancing several of China's higher education institutions into the top tier of universities worldwide in the next several decades. In the meantime, China has received educational aid from UNESCO and many other international organizations and sources, including the World Bank, which recently loaned China $14.7 billion for educational development. Since 2007, China has become the sixth largest country in hosting international students. The top ten countries with students studying in China include: Korea, Japan, USA, Vietnam, Thailand, Russia, India, Indonesia, France and Pakistan. The total number of international students studying in China often range around two hundred thousands.
Only 30 percent of faculty hold postgraduate degrees. This is a consequence of the lack of an academic degree system in China until the 1980s. Recently, internationally-trained scholars have entered the faculty with the goals of both improving quality and strengthening ties to other institutions around the world. The state recognizes the need for more home-grown professors. In Spring 2007 China will conduct a national evaluation of its universities. The results of this evaluation will be used to support the next major planned policy initiative. The last substantial national evaluation of universities was in 1994. This evaluation resulted in the 'massification' of higher ecucation as well as a renewed emphasis on elite institutions.
1 – Introduction
2 – Meaning of Higher Education
3 - Attributes of Higher education
Relevance
Universal Appeal
Quality
4 - Higher Education Brings Change
Technology
Industry
Business
Literacy
Poverty Alleviation
Research work
Diversification
Mindset of the People
Stops brain Drain
Brings out the best
Future Building
Job Creation
5 – Role of University in Higher Education
6 – Role of higher education in European revolution
7 – Role of Higher Education in turn around of Indian Economy
8 – Higher Education and China’s Industrial Development
9 - State of Education Higher Education In Pakistan till 2001
10 – Higher Education Commission of Pakistan performance
11 – Criticism of HEC’s performance
12 – Reality about HEC’s Efforts
13 – Higher Education and its importance for Pakistan’s Future
14 – Conclusion
Criticism of HEC
Former minister Ishaq Khan Khakwani on Monday blasted the outgoing chairman Higher Education Commission, Dr Attaur Rehman, for what he termed the massive misuse of billions of rupees during his eight years in office.A fiery Khakwani demanded a special audit of the HEC accounts. He wondered where those billions were spent, which were given to Dr Rehman by General Pervez Musharraf for the uplift of higher education.“One may rightly expect from someone like Dr Rehman, who was in office for eight consecutive years, to turn around the whole system of higher education, particularly when the government was pumping billions into the accounts of the HEC. But after spending Rs 26 billion, he could not even set up a single foreign university”, he regretted.Sharply reacting against the praises for the outgoing HEC chairman, Ishaq Khan told The News that he was amazed to see that no one was questioning Dr Rehman about those six foreign universities, which he had planned to set up in Pakistan.Mr Khakwani alleged that those billions which could have changed the whole education system were spent by Rehman on foreign trips, TA/DA and holding of seminars in five-star hotels.He said the Dr Rehman‚Äôs influence during the previous government could be judged from the fact that the whole education ministry got only Rs 6 billions in budget for the whole country but the HEC alone got more than Rs 26 billions. He said that the huge amount was given to Dr Rehman to improve the educational standards for only 3 per cent students.Khakwani alleged that more than Rs 200 million might have been spent alone on TA/DA of only few top guns of the HEC.He recalled that during one of the federal cabinet meetings, he had critically evaluated the claims of the HEC and the whole cabinet had clapped after he had finished his arguments. Khakwani said he had told Dr Rehman in a cabinet meeting that instead of setting up six foreign universities he should have established only one. But he regretted that even today when Dr Rehman is going home nobody was asking him about those six foreign universities.He demanded of the auditor general of Pakistan to conduct an audit of the HEC accounts so the people should know where those billions were spent.On the other hand, Dr Attaur Rehman defended his position while talking to the News. “We often differed in opinions on the issues concerning the HEC”, Dr Rehman said, adding he did not want to discus those differences with the media at this stage.Dr Rehman said the HEC accounts had always been audited and rejected the charges of financial irregularities against him. About the six foreign universities, he said projects of setting up four such universities were approved hardly four months back. ‚ÄúChina, Italy, Austria and Germany are ready to set up universities here,‚Äù he said, admitting that no foreign university was operating in the country presently.When asked why the Americans and British universities did not set up their camps here, he said they were not ready to establish universities in Pakistan.On his performance as the chairman HEC, he said one should note how much the international institutions had appreciated the uplift of the higher educational during his eight years in office.
HEC’s performance
“As many as 47 new universities had been established and 18 new campuses of universities have also been established during the six year period of HEC’s existence,” he said. University enrolment has almost tripled from 135,123 to 363,700 during this 6 year period of HEC thereby providing far more opportunities of our youth to acquire higher education.“It has been alleged that 6 foreign universities were planned to be set up in Pakistan but not a single one has been established. Actually, it was only in February 2008 that 4 projects for the establishment of universities in collaboration with Germany, Italy, Austria and China were approved. Subsequently, the new government established a Cabinet Committee to review the programme and to consider if funding could be made available for it. The Cabinet has yet to make a final decision in this respect and so the programme has been essentially frozen, largely due to the serious financial situation of Pakistan. How could money have been wasted for this programme when not a single new building for these universities has so far been built or faculty hired? The need to establish foreign universities in Pakistan has been questioned. It needs to be understood that without a critical number of world class engineers and scientists, Pakistan cannot hope to compete in the highly competitive global economy. Our students would be exposed to high quality faculty from foreign countries, follow their curriculum, pass their examinations and get degrees from top universities from Germany, France etc. They would therefore reach international standards of education, science and engineering in a very short period. India produces over 400,000 engineering graduates annually while Pakistan produces only about 8,000 engineering graduates. The Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) set up in 1960s helped to transform India and ushered in an IT revolution—-as a result India presently earns tens of billions of dollars in exports of software. India has also decided to expand its present programme of IITs and also significantly increase the number of Indian Institute of Science so that it could compete with advanced countries. It has been claimed that HEC programmes have not had any major impact on higher education. This is completely incorrect as proved by the following facts: (a) In a recent USAID Report (still in draft form) it is stated that: “We are very impressed with the breadth, scope, and depth of the reforms implemented by the HEC since 2002. No other developing country we know has made such spectacular progress.” (b) The world’s top science journal “Nature” in an editorial published on 28th August 2008 acknowledged “the solid foundations” built by HEC during the last 6 years under my Chairmanship and urged the new government to continue to support this important sector to prevent us from going back to the “Stone Age”. (c) The World Bank was asked by Government of Pakistan to carry out the performance audit of HEC. A 128 page report published by the World Bank has praised the excellent initiatives by HEC. (d) The British Council in another recent comprehensive report published earlier this year has praised my own leadership as Chairman HEC in the following words “I have worked in many countries in South America, the Middle East, North Africa, and in Russia and India, over the last six years. None in my view, with the exception of India , has the potential of Pakistan for the UK university sector, largely because of the dynamic, strategic leadership of the Chairman of HEC” (e) “Science Watch” published by the Thomson Reuters group have recently given Pakistan the “Rising Star” status in five fields of science and engineering, the highest number achieved by any country in the world. (f) The enormous emphasis laid by HEC on research has resulted in 400% increase in research output in international journals from Pakistani universities. The research output in international journals originating from Pakistani institutions has grown from a only about 600 research articles in year 2002 to over 1714 by the year 2006 and 2407 articles in 2007. (g) During the 56 year period (1947-2003) not a single Pakistani university could qualify to reach the ranks of the top 600 universities in the world. Today 3 of Pakistani universities are in this category with the National University of Science and Technology standing at a very respectable number 376.(k) Previously our degrees were not recognized internationally as we had only 16 years of study programmes before students obtained the Masters degrees. HEC introduced a 4-year undergraduate programme which is being implemented in a phased manner over a 3 year period. This will result in international recognition of Pakistani degrees. (h) A huge emphasis has been placed on quality of education. National rankings of our universities were published, thereby generating competition.. Quality Assurance Cells have been established in different universities and student evaluation of teachers’ performance introduced. (i) Video-conferencing facility has been provided in 28 universities with the key feature of live interactive lectures from technologically advanced countries. (j) A major national research grant programme was launched. The National Research Programme for Universities (NRPU) facilitates research pursuits of researchers. The year saw the approval of 195 projects in Agriculture, Food Sciences, Archeology, Biological Sciences, Engineering, Computer Science, Mathematics and Pharmacy for funding over a maximum period of three years. There is tangible excitement in the air where faculty members are working in their state-of-the -art and well equipped laboratories. (k) Strict financial discipline is maintained by HEC. All its programmes have been regularly audited by government auditors as well as private international auditors. It is also the first government institution which fully implemented SAP accounting system thereby being completely transparent in all transactions. (l) A major programme of post- doctoral training in top foreign universities has been initiated which has already benefited some 200 faculty members. (m) A strict project monitoring system was introduced and quarterly reports are sent to Planning, Finance and the Chancellors of public sector institutions. (n) A transparent process of appointment of Vice- Chancellors was introduced based on open advertisement and final recommendation by a search committee comprising eminent scholars. It has been stated in an earlier article which appeared in the newspaper that too much money has been spent on higher education at the cost of lower level education. This is incorrect. Less than 15% of the entire education budget is spent on higher education. According to international norms at least 25-30% of national budget should be spent on higher education. During the last two years per student expenditure has actually gone down by about 30% due to inflation and the tripling student enrolment. Has HEC made a difference in the last 6 years as compared to performance of the erstwhile UGC in the previous 56 years. One needs only to talk to any Vice-Chancellor of a public sector university or visit hundreds of new institutions established during the last 6 years to get a fruitful answer. One is at liberty to turn a blind eye to HEC’s achievements, but they will not cease to exist. What is presented above are undeniable facts and in the final analysis what matters is not what my supporters or critics say, but the opinions of neutral international experts mentioned above who have carried out a detailed analysis of the Higher Education sector in Pakistan and paid glowing tributes to our achievements. To identify me with President Musharraf or any other past government is incorrect, although I must acknowledge the tremendous support provided to HEC by General Musharraf. I am a scientist and not a politician. I received four Civil Awards (Tamgha-i-Imtiaz, Sitara-i-Imtiaz, Hilal-i-Imtiaz and Nishan-i-Imtiaz) from successive governments of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, Mohtarama Shaheed Benazir Bhutto and Mr. Shaukat Aziz. I have tried to serve my country honestly and to the best of my abilities and will continue to do so Inshallah in the years to come.
The Higher Education Commission, set up in 2002 under the Pevez Musharraf-led government as a body to regulate higher education in the country, seems to be running into increased trouble as a result of budgetary cuts by the new government. A development grant of Rs4 billion, due this month, has reportedly been cut to Rs2 billion. The HEC budget had also been slashed earlier, with some quarters suggesting this may have been one factor in the decision by the former chairman of the body to step down. The HEC has been a somewhat controversial setup. The policy of spending a huge percentage of the country's limited education budget on higher education, accessible to a tiny minority in a nation where literacy still stands at little above 50 per cent has been questioned by many. Very few of the children who enroll at schools are able to make it to colleges, especially given that the dropout rate for primary school is almost an astonishing 50 per cent (among the highest in the world). The argument then goes that Pakistan needs to focus on improving education at the primary level as a key priority. This having been said, the HEC has to its credit some achievements. In a situation where standards have slumped so sharply that employers report encountering post-graduates unable to describe global warming or write even a short paragraph with originality and coherence, the HEC's efforts to push up the level of dissertations and of scientific research is commendable. So are its' efforts to tackle the menace of plagiarism, with several cases involving academics uncovered at prestigious universities. For these reasons, it would be wise to keep the body intact and ensure it can continue its role – even while directing more attention to the state of education at lower levels.
Higher Education and its role in European development
– The Role of Higher Education" focused on the future role of higher education from the point of view of a large industrial concern, underlining the importance of lifelong learning and the importance of graduates with both professional skills and broad
personal competencies. main dimensions of the World Higher Education are relevance, quality, internationalization,
and finance and management.
No chain being stronger than its weakest link, higher education should be a strong part of a strong educational system, as well as play a key role in opening new futures by contributing, in close collaboration with other partners, to the innovation chain. Similarly, higher education institutions have a key role to play in European society by contributing to equitable and sustainable development and to the culture of peace. They should act critically and objectively on the basis of rigour and merit, actively promoting intellectual and moral solidarity by serving individual needs. In a world of in-depth transformations, higher education institutions are expected to act responsibly and responsively. They are to foresee, anticipate, and influence changes in all quarters of society and be prepared and able to differentiate and to adapt accordingly.
Given the growing individual demand for higher learning and the resulting pressures on higher education institutions, there is a need for ever more institutional diversification, for new policies of access to higher education, and for a structured development of lifelong learning. In order to better respond to the needs of diversification, a wider and more imaginative institutional profiling is expected to occur within higher education systems, thus leaving less room for categorization of institutions. At the same time, more programmatic diversification within the institutions is required. Lifelong learning for personal and professional development, for career change, transferable skills, and matching supply and demand for highly trained personnel is essential. Higher education institutions must be able to offer corresponding courses in continuing education and in alliance with employers and other social partners so as to ensure that they are widely available and contribute to a coherent system of higher education. Thus it is essential to define the links in the overall "educational chain" and the relations between them so that individuals can independently manage their learning at whatever level.
In response to this increasingly differentiated demand, coherence means flexibility with regard to: access, content, breadth, depth, and duration of programmes, means of delivery, examination, and validation. Thus, new policies of access should be designed on the basis of merit and equal opportunities, expanding student profiles, and reaching out to hitherto underprivileged groups of society.
Higher education institutions should pay increased attention to promoting strategies for the conceptualization and the management of educational innovation, particularly with reference to organization of contents, learning materials, teaching methods, and graduates' personal profiles as a response to the multiple challenges of their environments.
The shift from teaching to learning implies self-managed learning, a coaching role for the teacher, professional support services, investment in new delivery, and quality assurance mechanisms, especially in off-campus operations. It should also lead to a new definition of scholarship balancing discovery and transmission as well as the integration and application of knowledge. A crucial lever for change is a creative and well-defined personnel policy which opens up teaching as a career, supported by appropriate staff development programmes. Particular attention should be paid to the promotion of opportunities for women, including in top positions in higher education. It also involves a new approach to curriculum development taking into account multi- and interdisciplinarity and flexibility of choice, but in a coherent system which allows for modularization, credit transfer, the validation of work experience, and the organization of the academic year in semesters both at national and international level.
Modern information and communication technologies have major implications for the provision of education and training and require a fundamental restructuring of the ways in which teaching and learning objectives are delivered. Higher education institutions have a key role to play in exploiting, for themselves and together with other partners, the potential of innovative information and communication
technologies for academic development. Given the increased demand for higher education and its democratization, there is a pressing need to share good practice and to ensure academic quality standards by incorporating a culture of quality and the instruments for quality assurance at both systemic and institutional level. The new roles both of the teachers and of the students as well as the changing
relationship to government and world of work imply the definition of a new and explicit "educational contract" between the different partners, setting out rights and responsibilities for all concerned. It will be especially important to ensure that the voice of the students is heard at all stages of the learning process. The paradigmatic shift from teaching to learning requires an investigation of the desirability of establishing a European Centre for Teaching and Learning to act as an observatory of good practice and innovation bringing together higher education institutions and their stakeholders at local, national, and international level.
Research, seen as the process leading to the systematic development of new knowledge, is central to the effectiveness of all higher education, while the type of research and the resources and time allocated to its promotion may vary according to the mission statement of the institution and its position within a coherent system of higher education. Accordingly, uniformity of research missions should give way to differentiated institutional policies focused on achievable and competitive performances. Research is important for the contribution of higher education to the innovation chain, by a strategic mobilization of multilateral co-operation between city and regional governments, higher education institutions, industry, and business. In addition, it contributes to a constant supply of qualified young researchers. At the same time, a strong link between research and teaching opens opportunities for involving good researchers in the teaching process. Multi- and interdisciplinary research is required more and more to solve pressing societal problems, thus also contributing to sustainable human development. There is, however, increasing concern about the ability of the public purse to provide
adequate finances to meet these escalating needs. To ensure continued high quality research, governments need to provide adequate funding for basic research infrastructure, but within a competitive framework. Research funding allocations should be based on quality criteria and transparent auditing procedures. Care should be taken to avoid a mismatch between stakeholders' needs for interdisciplinary research and governmental/peer processes of research, audit, and funding, which may be focused on single disciplines. Research in the social sciences and the humanities should not be neglected. Support mechanisms at national and international level to stimulate and sustain research groups in less developed systems of higher education should be strengthened in order to support institutional development rather than exacerbating brain drain phenomena. Institutions are encouraged to develop Codes of Practice together with their partners for resolving questions of intellectual property regarding the results of externally funded research. Similarly, Codes of Ethics for the choice and conduct of research projects should be elaborated. Strategies for diversifying funding sources should be actively sought. Institutions attracting research funding in this way should ensure that their services are realistically costed and priced and that a percentage of this extra income is used to build up an internal development fund for emerging projects or poorly funded areas. Networking with corporate laboratories, multinational corporations, especially at regional level, has a particular role to play in enhancing the quality and scope of institutional research as well as its resource base. In a labour market which is dynamic and heterogeneous, universities should not base their long-term orientations on labour market or manpower planning, but on social demand. They therefore have to prepare their students for meeting the challenges of an intrinsically uncertain labour market. In addition to their professional qualifications, graduates require a broad set of attributes in terms of personal and transferable skills and competencies in order to increase their employability in a knowledge society. To sustain a well-rounded individual development, full participation of stakeholders, in particular representatives of students, teachers, the world of work, and public authorities in higher education policy formation, and curriculum development is essential. As intelligent providers, higher education institutions need to develop their knowledge of markets, anticipate needs, be aware of competition, and invest in processes of quality assurance. Students have to prepare for an increasingly diversified market, from employment in large industrial concerns to small enterprises, from working in the public sector to the service sector, and not forgetting individual entrepreneurship. There is a special need for the promotion of more constructive relations of higher education institutions to the world of small and medium size enterprises as the sector employing the largest number of graduates.
Higher education institutions should provide systematic information in schools and enterprises to guide student choices, provide placements as an integral part of degree courses, and offer research training in a work environment, as well as career guidance services at all times. Higher education institutions are as much concerned with the creation as with the transmission of cultural values. Although it is misleading to speak of "European" values per se, in the specific European context and in terms of the European university tradition, a framework does exist in terms of cultural unity through diversity. This means agreeing to disagree in order to pursue open, critical, and
constructive dialogue. As a consequence, higher education institutions have a key role to play, not only as centres, but also as incubators of cultural diversity and of multiracial harmony and understanding. This means they have a particularly important role to play in
creating a civil society and in preparing young people for shaping and living in a democratic society, a place where higher education plays an active role in public debate on ethical and policy questions. These values should permeate all higher education curricula; their transmission, especially as far as ethical considerations are concerned, should not be limited to special courses. Special emphasis should be placed on language training, multidisciplinarity, and independent and critical learning associated with teamwork. With
the help of higher education institutions, this process should start in primary and secondary education. Attention should be paid to incorporating the European dimension as an integral part of teaching and research and of sustaining the diversity of the learning experience through student and staff mobility. This means strengthening existing provision for the recognition of degrees and diplomas, in particular through the implementation of the UNESCO/Council of Europe Joint Convention, and supporting the further development of a coherent credit transfer system. Furthermore, all efforts should be made to remove practical, administrative, and legal obstacles to academic exchange at institutional, national, and international level. In this respect, the importance of networking and true international partnerships for co-operation in teaching, research, or service is paramount. A constructive partnership between government, business and industry, and higher education institutions is a critical element in the implementation of an Agenda for Change in Higher Education. The role of government is expected to shift from bureaucratic control to policy steering, stable funding formulae, quality monitoring, project-based investment, and providing a cushion against the wider excesses of the demands of the free market. Business and industry should be encouraged to define more clearly their needs as clients and to work together with higher education institutions as training providers. Higher education institutions should be entrusted with a greater institutional autonomy, thus enhancing their capacity for change, for acting responsibly, effectively, and entrepreneurially as "learning organizations", while making them more accountable in terms of performance. Inter-institutional alliances should be a substantial lever for institutional change and development. In view of the common assumptions on trends affecting future university development in Europe, the growing systematization of institutional management is a welcome development as is the corresponding awareness of the need for internal strategic planning and rethinking, both for intrinsic reasons and in response to initiatives from national higher education planners.
The Importance of Higher Education
In the last decade, Canada’s universities produced more than 1.25 million bachelor’s graduates, 225,000 master’s graduates and almost 40,000 PhDs. These graduates bring critical thinking, communications, problem-solving, creativity and research skills as well as the specialized knowledge of their fields of study to the workplace. The labour market clearly values these individuals and rewards their knowledge and skills; over their lifetimes university graduates earn $1 million more on average than do those without a postsecondary education. The focus of the federal contribution to higher education has been on direct financial assistance to students through vehicles such as the Canada Student Loans Program and in financial transfers to the provinces, which in turn provide operating grants to the institutions in their respective jurisdictions. The federal government announced a variety of significant measures in its 2004 budget with respect to student assistance. AUCC welcomed the announced package of student assistance measures, but joins a number of other organizations representing the postsecondary education community in stressing that the existing transfer mechanism is proving inadequate. The TD Economics study concludes that “the system is no longer well placed to serve the future needs of Canadians.” In brief, Canadians are demanding access to higher education opportunities at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Meeting this challenge will require solutions that address quality, access and capacity. AUCC projected in 2001 that there will be a need for at least 200,000 more university spaces during the decade 2001- 2011 to respond to growing demand. However, the demand for university degrees is growing even faster than predicted. There were 748,000 full-time university students in Canada in 2003-04, an increase of 100,000 students in just two years. Early indications for 2004-05 suggest that the number of students has grown by an additional 20,000. Despite growing provincial government investments in recent years, enrolment growth means that government spending per student has dropped from about $9,700 in 1994 to $8,600 in 1999 and to about $8,000 in 2004. For the future, the fundamental challenge is two-fold: to ensure that no academically qualified Canadians are denied the opportunity to benefit from a university education, and to ensure that universities have the necessary capacity to provide quality higher education
to increasing umbers of students. While it is important to make university education affordable for students, it is also necessary to ensure that universities have the physical and human infrastructure they need to provide a high-quality education. AUCC and others have offered a number of suggestions about how the federal government could help meet this challenge of strategic importance to all of Canada. For example, six organizations wrote a joint letter to the Prime Minister in December 2003 urging him to work with the provinces to address the capacity issue. We recognize that all interested parties must continue to examine the issues and to work cooperatively to find creative solutions. In this regard, we are encouraged that provincial ministers of education have responded by declaring through the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) their intent to focus on postsecondary education issues, as well as literacy and Aboriginal education, and to discuss these issues with the federal government. In particular they note their interest in funding for infrastructure costs, the indirect costs of research, and increased access. In response, the federal Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development, Joe Volpe, stated: “I look forward to working with CMEC on our shared concerns in the areas of literacy, Aboriginal education and post-secondary education capacity. These are key priorities for the Government of Canada as well. We have a strong record of collaboration with provincial/territorial governments on student financial assistance. I look forward to building on this success.”
The Importance of University Research and Knowledge Transfer
Canadian university research takes place in a highly competitive global context. While federal investments in research have increased significantly in recent years, our position relative to other countries has changed only slightly, due in part to increased funding on the part of other countries as well. Universities are important venues for research, performing more than one third of all research done in the country. As performers, universities draw on relationships with federal and provincial government partners, the private sector, the not-for-profit sector, and foreign investors; no other research venue has comparable breadth and depth of expertise and strategic coordination services. The crucial importance of university research in Canada’s overall research effort is demonstrated by the growing investments in university research by all sectors in recent years, including federal and provincial governments and the private sector.
At the same time, universities house the nation’s most comprehensive and extensive knowledge banks. They are a constant and consistent source of new knowledge, skills and ideas and maintain the critical mass of researchers, facilities, infrastructure and research
administration resources to perform this unique role. As a former president of Harvard University has observed, “All advanced nations depend increasingly on three critical elements: new discoveries, highly trained personnel, and expert knowledge….universities are primarily responsible for supplying two of these ingredients and are a major source of the third.”2
Given the scale of recent federal investments in university research, it is entirely appropriate to ask about the impacts of those investments, both in terms of the knowledge created by research activities and also in terms of the transfer and application of that
knowledge to Canadian society. There exists a broad consensus that university research has had a range of impacts and contributions, and that these diffuse through society over an extended period of time. While it is too early to offer precise measurements of these impacts and contributions, especially in the short term, it is already possible to discern certain significant trends and impacts. Examples of these include:
A competitive and innovative business environment
University research results in patents, products and jobs for Canadians. To date there have been 680 spin-off companies from universities and affiliated institutions, producing over $2.5 billion in revenues and employing over 19,000 individuals. Beyond this direct effect, however, university research can also lead to improved productivity as well as contributing to regional economic development. Universities as institutions have a significant impact on their communities in terms of economic activity and job creation, as was acknowledged recently by the mayors of Canada’s largest cities. Through mechanisms such as research chairs, centres of excellence, institutes and investigator-led projects, universities are catalysts for innovation across the full spectrum of industries.
A healthy population and a sustainable health system
Many features of the health care system upon which Canadians rely are the product of university research. The diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease is an important element of university research, while our universities train the next generation of health practitioners of all kinds. Between 1991 and 2000, Canadian universities graduated more than 100,000 health care professionals who play a pivotal role in health care delivery in urban and rural communities across Canada. At an economic level, university graduates from all disciplines are less likely to place demands on the health care system, while they contribute a disproportionately large share of the taxes that fund the system.3 While Canadian data are not available, the National Institutes of Health in the U.S. have estimated that the rate of return on publicly funded health research is in the order of 25 to 40 percent.
A highly qualified and adaptable workforce
Universities produce the highly qualified workforce that Canada’s growing knowledgebased economy needs. The number of positions held by workers in these kinds of occupations doubled to 25 percent between 1971 and 2001. University graduates are the pool from which Canada’s research community draws; fully 95 percent of those innovators listed in the recent “Top 40 Under 40” feature of the Report on Business hold university degrees, most from Canadian institutions. Graduates also play a seminal role in managing Canadian organizations of all kinds. According the most recent census data, 44 percent of all senior management positions in Canada are held by university graduates, a significant proportion given that university graduates represent only 19 percent of the working-age population.
An informed and engaged citizenry
University graduates form the “civic core” of our society and are likelier to be informed and engaged citizens. They are more likely to exercise their right to vote and have a higher rate of volunteering or participating in community groups and charitable organizations, for example by contributing an average of 166 hours annually as volunteers. At the same time, university researchers are frequently called upon to provide expert insight and commentary on the issues of the day, whether through the media or in advising government by appearing before Parliamentary committees or other bodies.
A cohesive, diverse and just society
It is important to recognize that university research also has a broader impact on the lives of Canadians. Research provides the tools and direction to promote social inclusion and cohesion and can help Canadians to understand and appreciate the diversity of our communities. University graduates are leaders in creating the social capital required to build a more inclusive and fair society; likewise, university research promotes the better understanding and improved application of a wide range of social services such as child and adult welfare, immigration, justice and policing. Universities also lead more than 50 cultural research networks that study and promote Canada’s cultural diversity.
Thriving and safe communities and cities
Universities are key contributors to many thriving cities and communities across Canada. They serve as catalysts of economic development and renewal and help to improve the safety of our communities through the development of public health measures and a 3 University graduates make up 16 percent of the population over 18, yet contribute almost 33 percent of better understanding of social issues. The Canadian Policy Research Network notes that educational institutions are one of five core factors making important contributions to urban quality of life.
Responsive and responsible government
Governing Canada in a responsive and responsible manner depends on both university research and on the graduates that universities produce. University graduates form the core of the federal public service and account for 54 percent of all senior government managers and officials who oversee the programs and policies that have an impact on Canadians’ daily lives. University research informs public policy development in a wide array of fields, while government departments rely on university expertise for advice and on graduates to staff key positions in the public service.
Universities as a Window on the World
Canadian universities are well-positioned to make a valuable contribution to the federal government’s commitment to enhance Canada’s role and influence in the world, while at the same time providing a window on the world for Canadians. With over 3000 active international partnerships around the world, Canadian universities are already significant actors in Canada’s international relations and these activities underpin a range of foreign policy objectives including fostering global peace and security, finding solutions to global development challenges, promoting Canadian values abroad and building stronger diplomatic, scientific, commercial and trade partnerships, particularly with countries of strategic interest to Canada. AUCC and its members have been actively engaged in the international policy review process and have submitted a discussion paper to Foreign Affairs Canada (FAC) which provides an overview of the breadth and depth of Canadian universities’ international activities. The paper also highlights strengths and challenges with respect to a more effective leveraging of these activities to serve Canada’s international policy goals. One challenge that is particularly pressing is the need to engage a critical mass of Canadian students from a broad range of backgrounds and from all parts of the country in the work/study abroad opportunities offered by Canadian institutions. New data shows that less than one percent of Canadian students participate in an international learning experience for credit at their Canadian university. Lack of financial resources remains the most significant barrier to addressing this situation. At the same time, Canadian universities are poised to help meet the Prime Minister’s challenge to leverage Canada’s R&D capacity to address development needs. The data presented in AUCC’s international policy discussion paper clearly illustrates that Canadian universities have the commitment, expertise, experience, and relationships required to help make this goal a reality.
Higher education is education provided by universities, vocational universities. Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. They also include teacher-training schools, community colleges, and institutes of technology. At the end of a prescribed course of study, a degree, diploma, or certificate is awarded.
Higher education has developed in numerous ways since the end of World War II. Throughout the world, issues such as autonomy and accountability, the impact of technology, the growing role of markets and the privatization of higher education, the role of research and teaching, various efforts toward curriculum reform, and the massive expansion that has characterized higher education systems in most countries have all played important roles in the development of higher education. Universities are international institutions, with common historical roots, and at the same time are embedded in national cultures and circumstances. It is worthwhile to examine the contemporary challenges to higher education in comparative perspective, as most issues affect academe everywhere.
Postsecondary education has expanded since World War II in virtually every country in the world. The growth of postsecondary education has, in proportional terms, been more dramatic than that of primary and secondary education. Writing in 1975, Martin Trow spoke of the transition from elite to mass and then to universal higher education in the industrialized nations. While the United States enrolled some 30 percent of the relevant age cohort (18 - 21 year olds) in higher education in the immediate postwar period, European nations generally maintained an elite higher education system, with fewer than 5 percent of the population attending postsecondary institutions. By the 1960s many European nations educated 15 percent or more of this age group - Sweden for example, enrolled 24 percent in 1970, with France at 17 percent. At the same time, the United States increased its proportion to around 50 percent, approaching universal access. By the mid-1990s many European countries, including France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, enrolled around 50 percent of the relevant age group, and the proportion in the United States increased to three-quarters. While Europe and North America are now relatively stable, middle-income countries and countries in the developing world have continued to expand at a rapid rate.
In the Third World, expansion has been similarly dramatic. Building on tiny and extraordinarily elitist universities, higher education expanded rapidly in the immediate post-independence period. In India, enrollments grew from approximately 100,000 at the time of independence in 1947 to over 6.5 million in the 1990s - although India enrolls just 7 percent of the relevant age group. China enrolls a similar number, though this represents only 5 percent of its young people. China, especially, is engaged in a dramatic expansion program. Expansion in Africa has also been rapid, with the postsecondary student population growing from 21,000 in 1960 to 437,000 in 1983, but with growth stagnating in the 1990s as a result of the economic and political difficulties experienced by many sub-Saharan African countries. Recent economic difficulties in much of sub-Saharan Africa have meant that per-student expenditure has dropped, contributing to a marked deterioration in academic standards. Enrollment growth has also slowed.
Expansion is also a hallmark elsewhere in the non-Western countries. The situation is complex. In some countries, including the larger Latin American nations, the Philippines, and some others, enrollment rates have reached 30 percent or more. In most of the low-income nations, however, enrollments lag far behind. However, growth continues to be rapid in much of the Third World, with accompanying strains on budgets and facilities - and deterioration in standards. Expansion in the Third World has, in general, exceeded that in the industrialized nations, at least in proportional terms. It should be noted that there are significant variations among Third World nations - some countries maintain small and relatively elitist university systems, while others have expanded more rapidly. Among the highest rates of expansion, and now of participation, are in those newly industrialized countries such as South Korea and Taiwan.
There are many reasons for the expansion of higher education. A central cause has been the increasing complexity of modern societies and economies, which have demanded a more highly trained workforce. Almost without exception, postsecondary institutions have been called on to provide the required training. Indeed, training in many fields that had once been imparted on the job has become formalized in institutions of higher education. Whole new fields, such as computer science, have come into existence, and many of these rely on universities as a key source of research and training. Nations now developing scientific and industrial capacity, such as Korea and Taiwan, have depended on academic institutions to provide high-level training and research expertise to a greater extent than was the case during the first industrial revolution in Europe. Not only do academic institutions provide training, they also test and provide certification for many roles and occupations in contemporary society. These roles have been central to universities from their origins in the medieval period, but have been vastly expanded in recent years. A university degree is a prerequisite for an increasing number of occupations in most societies. Indeed, it is fair to say that academic certification is necessary for most positions of power, authority, and prestige in modern societies. This places immense power in the hands of universities. Tests to gain admission to higher education are rites of passage in many societies and are important determinants of future success. Competition within academe varies from country to country, but in most cases an emphasis is also placed on high academic performance and tests in the universities. There are often further examinations to permit entry into specific professions. The role of the university as an examining body has grown for a number of reasons. As expansion has taken place, it has been necessary to provide ever more competitive sorting mechanisms to control access to high-prestige occupations. The universities are also seen as meritocratic institutions that can be trusted to provide fair and impartial tests to measure accomplishment honestly and, therefore, determine access. When such mechanisms break down - as they did in China during the Cultural Revolution - or where they are perceived to be subject to corrupt influences - as in India - the universities are significantly weakened. The older, more informal, and often more ascriptive means of controlling access to prestigious occupations are no longer able to provide the controls needed, nor are they perceived as fair. Entirely new fields have developed where no sorting mechanisms existed, and academic institutions have frequently been called upon to provide not only training but also examination and certification. Expansion has also occurred because the growing segments of the population of modern societies demand it. The middle classes, seeing that academic qualifications are necessary for success, demand access to higher education. Governments generally respond by increasing enrollment. When governments do not move quickly enough, private initiatives frequently establish academic institutions in order to meet the demand. In countries like India, the Philippines, and Bangladesh, a majority of the students are educated in private colleges and universities. At present, there are powerful worldwide trends toward: (1) imposing user fees in the form of higher tuition charges, (2) increasingly stressing private higher education, and (3) defining education as a "private good" in economic terms. These changes are intended to reduce the cost of postsecondary education for governments, while maintaining access - although the long-term implications for the quality of, access to, and control over higher education remain unclear. In most countries, higher education is heavily subsidized by the government, and most, if not all, academic institutions are in the public sector. While there is a growing trend toward private initiative and management sharing responsibility for education with public institutions, governments will likely continue to be central to funding postsecondary education, although the private sector is currently the major source of growth worldwide. The dramatic expansion of academic institutions in the postwar period has proved very expensive for governments and has led to a diversification of funding sources. Nonetheless, the demand for access has been an extraordinarily powerful one.
China
In 2002, there were slightly over 2000 higher education institutions in PRC. Close to 1400 were regular higher education institutions (HEIs). A little more than 600 were higher education institutions for adults. Combined enrollment in 2002 was 11,256,800. Of this close to 40 percent were new recruits. Total graduate student enrolment was 501,000.
In 2005, there were about 4,000 Chinese institutions. Student enrollment increased to 15 million, with rapid growth that is expected to peak in 2008. However, the higher education system does not meet the needs of 85 percent of the college-aged population.
Since 1998, 10 universities have been targeted by the Chinese government to become “world-class” - including Peking and Tsinghua Universities. To achieve that goal, the government promised to increase the educational allocation in the national budget by 1 percent a year for each of the five years following 1998. When Chinese president Jiang Zemin attended the hundredth anniversary ceremony at Beijing University in 1998 and the ninetieth anniversary ceremony at Tsinghua University in 2001, he emphasized this ambitious goal of advancing several of China's higher education institutions into the top tier of universities worldwide in the next several decades. In the meantime, China has received educational aid from UNESCO and many other international organizations and sources, including the World Bank, which recently loaned China $14.7 billion for educational development. Since 2007, China has become the sixth largest country in hosting international students. The top ten countries with students studying in China include: Korea, Japan, USA, Vietnam, Thailand, Russia, India, Indonesia, France and Pakistan. The total number of international students studying in China often range around two hundred thousands.
Only 30 percent of faculty hold postgraduate degrees. This is a consequence of the lack of an academic degree system in China until the 1980s. Recently, internationally-trained scholars have entered the faculty with the goals of both improving quality and strengthening ties to other institutions around the world. The state recognizes the need for more home-grown professors. In Spring 2007 China will conduct a national evaluation of its universities. The results of this evaluation will be used to support the next major planned policy initiative. The last substantial national evaluation of universities was in 1994. This evaluation resulted in the 'massification' of higher ecucation as well as a renewed emphasis on elite institutions.
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